UNAM Gā-aisib Repository
The UNAM Gā-aisib Repository serves as a central platform to preserve and showcase the university's scholarly output.
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Recent Submissions
Addressing the burden of leptospirosis in Africa
(Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines journal, 2025) Musara, Colin; Kapungu, Frank
Leptospirosis is a zoonosis of global distribution. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has designated leptospirosis a nationally notifiable disease. There is need to raise awareness of the burden of leptospirosis among health care givers and policy makers in Africa. The aim of this review was to highlight the current situation of leptospirosis in Africa and suggest a One Health approach of addressing its status as a leading zoonosis. In tropical regions, the nonspecific symptoms of fever, myalgia and arthralgia result in misdiagnosis of leptospirosis with malaria, yellow fever, typhoid fever, dengue fever, brucellosis, rickettsiosis, and babesiosis. Urinalysis presents an inexpensive diagnostic aid for leptospirosis. Humans with leptospirosis exhibit proteinuria, glucosuria, pyuria, haematuria and granular casts resulting from acute kidney injury. Therapeutic guidelines for empirical treatment of febrile patients should be considered. Febrile patients who test negative for malaria and yellow fever can benefit from doxycycline, which also treats brucellosis, rickettsiosis and typhoid fever. Control of leptospirosis should also address Leptospira infection in domestic animal reservoirs through vaccination of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and dogs in endemic areas. Treatment of sick animals with streptomycin eliminates the carrier status, curbing leptospiruria and spread of infection. Rodents are important in transmission of Leptospira to humans in urban slums and rural settings therefore rodent control strategies help in reducing transmission of leptospirosis. Indirect transmission of Leptospira occurs through contact with water, vegetation, or soil contaminated with infected urine. Drinking water should be drawn from protected sources or chlorinated before household use
Exploring factors affecting the success of women entrepreneurship in Namibia: The case of women entrepreneurs in Windhoek
(University of Namibia, 2021) Negonga, Iina Nelago; Saruchera, Fanny
Over the past decades, the number of women venturing into business has exponentially grown,
especially developing economies such as Namibia. The challenges such female entrepreneurs face
has also equally been rising over the years. The purpose of the study was to explore factors
affecting the success of women entrepreneurs in Windhoek (Namibia). To accomplish this, the
following objectives were considered: to identify the factors affecting the success of women
entrepreneurship; to determine the factors contributing to the success of women entrepreneurs; to
establish the challenges faced by women entrepreneurs and to ultimately establish the strategies to
improve the welfare and development of women entrepreneurs in Windhoek. The researcher used
the descriptive - exploratory research design, meaning that a mixed method research approach was
employed for this study, through the use of the self-administered questionnaires (60) and the semi structured interviews. Results from the study indicated that the success of women entrepreneurship
in Namibia is hindered by factors such as; gender stereotyping of women, lack of marketing skills,
lack of government support, lack of knowledge, and lack of capital, among others. The study
concluded that human capital, marketing, technology and speed with which to the market are the
major factors behind the success of women entrepreneurs in Windhoek. The study thus
recommended the support from fmancial institutions (banks and discount houses) for start-up
capital, and government support (educating women in technology, skills and expertise), as well as
support from spouses as these could create some success stories in entrepreneurship. There, also,
is need for the government to be involved to make women entrepreneurs successful through
business education, and supportive policies that make it easier for them to access fmances
Investigating the factors affecting budget implementation in the Namibian Ministry of Home Affairs and Immigration
(University of Namibia, 2021) Shifonono, Juliana; Akande, Joseph Olurunfemi
Despite control and implementation being used as tools for the proper and efficient administration
of resources at the Ministry of Home Affairs and Immigration, the Ministry still faces difficulties
with budget implementation. As such, the study sought to investigate factors affecting budget
implementation at the Ministry of Home Affairs and Immigration with a focus on monitoring and
evaluation, availability of financial resources, organisational financial policies, and government
financial regulations.
The study adopted a descriptive survey research design to explore factors affecting budget
implementation within the Ministry of Home Affairs and Immigration. Questionnaires and
interviews were used to collect quantitative and qualitative data, respectively. The respondents
comprised of Deputy Directors, Administrative Officers in the procurement department, Control
admin officers, Accountants and internal auditors, Budget Assistants and HR personnel. Out of a
population of 50 employees directly working with budgets, 44 employees f01med the
representative sample. Purposive sampling was used to select the sample to ensure that only
knowledgeable individuals were contacted for data collection.
The research findings revealed a myriad of factors behind the challenges faced at the Ministry
when it comes to budget implementation concerning monitoring and evaluation, availability of
financial resources, organisational financial policies and government financial regulations. Some
of the critical factors include frequency of budget revision, departments' coordination on
budgetary issues, staff training on budget implementation, ministerial overspending, budgeting
spending and Ministry efficiency amongst others. Despite all the factors hindering efficient budget
implementation at the Ministry, the study confinned there are systems in place to support budget
implementation. The study rejected all the null hypothesis and accepted the alternative hypothesis.
The study recommends that for the Ministry of Home Affairs and Immigration to curb challenges
in budget implementation, there is a need for procedures and guidelines in the allocation of funds
and operational implementation policies. This study will benefit the Central Government and the
Ministry of Finance as it proposes best practice and strategies to mitigate failures in budget
implementation and control
Investigating the use of alternative building technologies for affordable housing delivery ln Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2021) Gatonye, Robert Mugabi; Randa, Okoth
The huge housing backlog estimated by several studies conducted in Namibia
to be over 100,000 units in 2016 and still growing 1s a manifestation of inadequate
delivery of affordable housing. This study is inspired by this dire reality perpetuated
by the low productivity of affordable housing projects that make use of conventional
methods of construction. This study investigates the use of Alternative Building
Technology (ABTs) as a potential solution to this problem. In pursuit of that, a
convergent independent mixed methods research design was adopted where data was
collected in parallel, analysed separately, and then merged at the discussion and
reporting stages. The theoretical framework for the study included concepts and
principles from economics, project management, psychology and lean construction.
ABTs have qualities such as reduced waste in construction time, labour, and materials
which make them more productive than conventional methods. Unavailability of
serviced land, limited funding, conservative regulations, and poor project management
are significant factors undermining the delivery of affordable housing in Namibia.
Currently, use of ABTs in Namibia is very minimal but success has been observed
elsewhere in Nigeria, South Africa, Kenya, and Uganda. The study is useful to
policymakers recommending reforms to the delivery of affordable housing as well as
property developers interested in this market segment
An analysis of the importance of government contribution to the growth of Agricultural Bank of Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2020) Hauwanga, Victoria; Sunde, Tafirenyika
The study was in exploration on the impact of state contribution to the growth of
Agribank. The study was based on the one main objective which was to study the
impact of state contribution to Agribank and the whole agricultural sector. This
research applied an exploratory research design to tease information on the
contribution of the state to the growth of Agricultural Bank of Namibia. The
investigation on the impact of state contributions to the growth of Agribank was
carried out in using a quantitative research method. In order to attain the objective, the
structured questionnaires were designed following the specific objectives of the study.
Structured questionnaires were used to collect data from the participants. All ethical
clearance data necessary procedures were followed before the data was carried out and
permission was granted by the institution. The data was analyzed using SPSS and
content-based analysis. The objectives of the study were to find out the impact of the
state funding to Agribank on the bank's growth, the strategies that Agribank can
implement to grow the loan book and recommendations on how Agribank could use
the state funding to improve the agricultural sector in Namibia. The main findings of
the study were that the state has a positive impact on the growth of Agribank. A direct
relationship between the state funding and the Agricultural Bank of Namibia was
identified through the findings. However, variables such as poor management, delays
in approving loan applications as well as disbursement of funds to the client and lack
of a sound loan recovery system hinder the smooth process of funding. The
conclusions were that the growth of the Agribank depends on the state funding because
it increases the number of loans hence the growth of Agribank. Interest rates do not
really impact the growth of Agribank. The study came up with recommendations that
the state has to increase its funding to Agribank. Employees should be developed
regularly to be efficient in the discharge of their duties and to equip them with new
management skills. The challenges faced in the process of carrying out the study were
getting the participants to fill in questionnaire because they were always busy
Determinants of tax evasion among small and medium enterprises in Windhoek
(University of Namibia, 2021) Shihwandu, Landuleni; Fombang, Mccpowell
Today it is widely accepted that Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) are the essential
catalysts for the economic development of any country; however, researchers have a
growing concern on the determinants of tax evasion among SMEs. Using a mixed method
design, the study aimed to assess the determinants of tax evasion among SMEs in
Windhoek. A questionnaire was used to interview the respondents who own SMEs in
Windhoek. Data was entered and analysed in SPSS. Descriptive statistics and regression
were used to analyse the data. The study revealed that the economic determinants that
influence the tax evasion by SMEs in Windhoek are: penalties, perception on governn1ent
spending and fmancial constraints. Tax mentality and tax morale, perception on equity
and fairness of the tax system and attitudes of the taxpayer are the non-economic
determinants that influence tax evasion. The study found that age, marital status and
education has effects on tax evasion. In the study, the researcher also discovered that
taxpayers have a negative attitude towards taxation. The study recommends that
govermnent must give the consumer a proper subsidy under a competitive firm's market,
the consumer will voluntarily and fully declare unit tax so that the firm cannot cheat, and
that the cheating and auditing costs can be saved, thus Pareto improving and efficient
taxation without evasion becomes practicable. Government should understand the
nation's behaviour towards taxes and through the Ministry of Inland Revenue set up
strategies that would encourage and enable start up SMEs to pay tax
An investigation into the effects of fiscal policy on the quality of primary and secondary education in Khomas region government schools
(University of Namibia, 2019) Ephram, Ester Ndinelago; Chifamba, Ronald
The adoption of Sustainable Developmental Goals, culminated in the adoption of
radical measures to increase enrolment, survival rates and minimising dropout rates
for both primary and secondary primary education. The rise in educational demands
is associated with increase in government expenditure. However, government either
adopts contractionary or expansionary fiscal measures to stimulate growth in the
economy. The extent to which fiscal policy changes impacts the quality of education
(enrolment rates, dropout rates, pass rates and survival rates) was investigated in this
study. The study investigated the nature and magnitude of the relationship between
government spending, (as measured by yearly expenditure on operational, capital
projects and teachers' deployment expenses) and the quality of education in Khomas
Region public schools. The study adopted a correlational research design to test the
strength of the relationship between quality of education and government spending.
Data was collected through questionnaires and also obtained from empirical
secondary data sources. An OLS regression model was used to test the relationship
between government spending and education quality using the SPSS. The research
found out there is a strong positive correlation between government expenditure and
the quality of education. It was found that any one unit increase in the government
expenditure has a corresponding increase in the quality of education. The study
concluded that government should increase per capita educational expenditure to
maintain a high quality of education because fiscal policy significantly affects the
quality of education
A comparative analysis of the effects of public tax education and tax amnesty on tax compliance in Windhoek
(University of Namibia, 2020) Mwapopi-Hanghome, Elise; Mtigwe, Bruce
This study was conducted with the aim of comparing the effects of public tax education
and tax amnesty on tax compliance. The Ministry of Finance (MoF) as the custodian of
the management and administration of state funds grapples with a widening budget deficit
which is becoming untenable. The Revenue department has accumulated massive tax
debts spanning over many decades. This has been aggravated by the imposition of
compound interest on outstanding amounts. In most cases, the amount owing now exceeds
the capital amount. The causal-comparative research design was adopted in this study as
it identifies differences between dependent variables and independent variables.
Quantitative research methods with a self-administered questionnaire were used to collect
data from taxpayers. A probability sampling frame was then used to ensure that every
taxpayer had an equal chance ofbeing selected. Analysis ofVariance (ANOVA) was used
to test the research hypothesis because it requires fewer measurements to discover
significant effects. Furthermore, descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages
were used in order to explain the effects of public tax education and tax amnesty on tax
compliance among Windhoek CBD taxpayers. Based on the outcomes, it comes out
clearly that the Inland Revenue Department had no educational programs in place to
provide training, teaching, and education to taxpayers. All that they do currently is to
remind taxpayers about their tax obligations and compliance while the public lack basic
skills and knowledge regarding tax. Whilst it seems that the tax amnesty is aimed at
increasing tax revenues in the State Budget, only a handful of taxpayers came forward to
participate in the program and the Inland Revenue Department did not collect as much
debt owed as expected. The Inland Revenue Department needs to do more to come up
with educational strategies to educate tax-payers and ensure that tax-payers gain basic
knowledge, especially on filling tax-return forms. They also need to educate taxpayers
and create awareness on the importance of tax amnesty programs by ensuring that the
public understands the benefits and consequences of the program. Both tax amnesty and
tax education programs if well implemented could help to enhance the level of compliance
which would help taxpayers to comply voluntarily through all possible ways
Investigating the impact of domestic economic dynamics on foreign portfolio investment in Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2020) Shindongo, Naftal Keleni; Sunde, Tafirenyika
This study investigated the impact of domestic economics dynamics on foreign portfolio
investment (FPI) in Namibia for the period 1986-2016. The study used annual and sec ondary data sourced from the Bank of Namibia (BoN), the Namibia Statistic Agency
(NSA) and the World Bank. Explanatory variables such as inflation rate, trade openness,
lending interest rate and gross domestic product (GDP) were used to explain the inflow
of foreign portfolio investment. E-views statistical package was utilised to analyse and
estimate the time series model. The study employed the methods of ARDL Cointegra tion (Bound cointegration) technique to establish whether variables exhibits the long
run relationship and Granger causality approach to assess the causality relationship be tween FPI and the domestic economic dynamics. According to the regression results, the
second lag of GDP, fourth lag of lending interest rate as well as the second lag of trade
openness were found to be the most significant factors that positively influence the in flow of FPI in the Namibian Economy. Whereas, FPI is also negatively influenced by its
own lag values and by inflation rate. The study recommended that the Government
should create more flexible policies and investment regulations that protect and earn for eign capital investors' confidence in Namibia. Furthermore, the Government should em power the relevant institutions that deal with correction and keeping of data that can en able Investors to access investment information easily. Lastly, the Government should
keep its membership with SADC, SACU, and European Union as part of the trade open ness incentives to attract FPI in the country
An investigation of factors influencing non-compliance with income tax by small and medium enterprises in Windhoek
(University of Namibia, 2020) Hamunyela, Theolida; Indongo, Nelago
The main objective of the study was to identify the major causes of tax non-compliance
among SMEs in Windhoek and examine the extent to which various factors affect tax
non-compliance. Based on the problem that was investigated, the research design was
multiple survey in nature, using mixed research methods. The target population of this
study consisted of SMEs in Windhoek and included the SMEs from the construction,
catering, transport, auto mechanics and crafts. The Chi-square test and binary logistic
regression were used to test the significance of the relationship and the extent of factors
associated with tax non-compliance among SMEs respectively. A 5% level of
significance was adopted in making the decision on significance. A p-value of 0.05 or
less was considered to be statistically significant. The results of this study revealed
that 51.4 % (36) of the SME entrepreneurs did not have a certificate of good standing
and 34.3 % (24) had a certificate of good standing with the Ministry of Finance while
14.3 % indicated that they do not know whether they have certificate of good standing.
Specifically, majority of SMEs which fail to submit tax returns on time are close
corporations. Only 57.1% sole traders did not submit their tax returns. The results also
showed that SMEs which fail to submit tax on time had been awarded only one tender.
The results further indicated that 41.7% of SMEs that did not submit tax returns on
time had at least 15 years of experience. The study concluded that tax non-compliance
of SMEs was influenced by business form, years of experience a company had as well
as contracts awarded. Therefore, the business form, companies' years of experience
and contracts awarded significantly influence income tax non-compliance. The
researcher recommends that tax systems should be aimed at reducing the costs
associated with complying with tax laws. This should encourage more SMEs to
comply because when taxpayers spend little or no money to comply, compliance
should come naturally. To enhance compliance, there is need to intensify taxpayer
education in terms of increasing the number of sessions and broadening coverage to
include tax consultants