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Item Identification ofgenetic variation in the Keratin-associated protein and KRT33A genes of the Swakara sheep of Namibia(University of Namibia, 2020) Nyoni, Nellia FelicityKeratins are structural intermediate filamentous proteins that constitute about 90% of the total wool fiber in sheep. The protein gene family is divided into two groups which are the Keratin Intermediate-Filament proteins (KRTs) and the Keratin-Associated proteins (KAPs). The KRTs form the skeletal structure of the wool fiber (micro-fibrils) and are embedded in a matrix of KAPs through disulphide cross-linkages. Genetic variation in the keratin genes may be associated with pelt quality traits. Pelt quality is determined by the unique hair formation, which is determined by these protein genes. High demand of exceptional pelts by the fashion industry, has probed this study in determining genetic variation in Keratin genes (KAP1.1, KAP1.3, KAP3.2) and KRT33A). The study also examined allele frequency distribution of the keratin genes in Swakara sheep in Namibia. Blood samples were collected from 168 Swakara sheep randomly selected from four farms; Neudamm, Gellap-Ost, Kalahari and Tsumis. Genomic Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was isolated using the Inqaba biotech-kit protocol. Extracted genomic DNA was confirmed using a Nano drop and amplified using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Genetic variation was assessed using PCR-Agarose gel electrophoresis in the KAP1.1 gene. As for the KAP1.3, KAP3.2 and KRT33A, genetic variation was assessed using Polymerase Chain Reaction-Single Strand Conformational Polymorphism (PCR-SSCP). Sequenced keratin genes under investigation and those retrieved from NCBI were grouped together and used to construct phylogenetic trees on Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis (MEGA) version 6.0. At the KAP1.1 locus, the study revealed three alleles; A, B and C with genotype frequencies of 0.13, 0.57 and 0.30, respectively. Mostly the B allele frequency was highly distributed in comparison to the A and C alleles. At the KAP1.1 locus, the study reports statistical significant difference in allele frequency distribution amongst the four farms (P=0.004). The KAP3.2 locus had one allele identified across all four farms and denoted as A. The KAP1.3 locus was statistically significant at P=0.160 with genotype frequencies of 0.5 (AA), 0.35 (AB) and 0.15 (CC). The KRT33A locus was not statistically significant (P=0.402), and had 0.25 (A) and 0.75 (B) allele frequency. The four genes under study showed no significant deviation from Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium. The findings of this study which reports genetic variation in the KAP1.1, KAP1.3 and KRT33A has the potential to help with the identification of genetic markers linked to superior pelts. The use of genetic markers in the selection of Swakara sheep breeding program would potentially increase the accuracy of selection, and compliment visual appraisal technique that is currently being used in the Swakara sheep industry.Item Effects of chemical treatment on nutrient content and palatability of Senegalia mellifera and Catophractes Alexandrii bush-based feeds(University of Namibia, 2019) Ndozi, Hosticks MukendwaThe objectives of this study were to determine: (1) the chemical composition of untreated Senegalia mellifera and Catophractes alexandrii; (2) the effect of NaOH and urea treatment at different levels (0%, 4%, 6% and 8%) on chemical composition of S. mellifera milled samples; (3) the nutrient composition of formulated diets from chemically and fibrolytic enzyme treated S. mellifera samples; (4) palatability of the feeds developed from S. mellifera, when fed to weaned Damara sheep. Samples consisting of small branches and twigs were analysed for chemical composition. Samples of S. mellifera were also treated for 21 days and the chemical composition was determined. Feed formulated from treated and untreated S. mellifera was assessed for palatability over 12 days in Damara sheep. The results showed that S. mellifera had a higher (P < 0.05) concentration of CP, NDF, ash and Ca than C. alexandrii. The concentration (g/kg DM) for S. mellifera were: CP (147.42 ± 0.37), NDF (653.63 ± 0.41) and ash (52.27 ± 0.11). Chemical composition (DM, OM, CP, EE, ADF, NDF, ash) of treated S. mellifera was influenced (P < 0.0001) by treatment. Treatment with 4% NaOH, 4% urea, 6% urea and 8% urea increased (P < 0.05) CP concentration compared to control. Formulated diets differed (P < 0.05) in their DM, OM, EE, NDF, ADF and ash. The control diet had higher (P < 0.05) NDF concentration compared to diets with 4% urea or 4% NaOH. Feed intake was influenced (P < 0.05) by day and diet x day interactions. Urea (8%) and NaOH (4%) treatment improved the chemical composition and palatability for S. mellifera feed, but the reaction conditions including chemicals, concentration, moisture content, pH and duration need to be optimized, to allow greater reduction of the lignin concentration.Item Quantification and characterisation of nutrients in Senegalia Mellifera milled biomas, feed intake and nitrogen balance in female boer goats fed with Senegalia Melifera bush-based feeds(University of Namibia, 2019) Epafras, AndreasThe objectives of this study were to quantify and characterize the nutritional content of milled Senegalia mellifera milled biomass obtained from nine blocks at Neudamm farm and to determine the dry matter intake (DMI), apparent digestibility and nitrogen retention in female Boer goats fed with Senegalia mellifera bush based feeds. Wood ash (WA), Polyethylene glycol (PEG, 6 000) and Biochar were evaluated as tannin deactivation methods. The milled biomass of S. mellifera was mixed using a clean concrete mixer with the following ingredients: yellow maize meal, liquid molasses; Marula oil press cake and coarse salt to formulate a complete diet with 14%CP and 11MJ ME/kg. Detannification treatments methods were added at a level of 5 g per day during feeding time. Eight (8) female Boer goats, with an average initial body mass of 31.5 kg (± 2.5 kg), were used in the feeding experiment. The goats were penned individually in metabolic cages measuring 120 cm long, 54 cm wide and 90 cm above the ground, allowing for the total collection of faeces and urine separately. Clean water was available ad libitum to the goats during the entire feeding experiment. The goats were fed in a 4x4 cross over Latin square design with four periods of experimental feeding. Each period lasted for 17 days, resulting in 68 days of experimental feeding. The goats were fed twice daily at 09:00h and 16:00h. The level of dry matter (DM) of feed offered was 4% of body weight. The results obtained in this study showed that there was a significant difference (p <0.05) in the chemical composition of Senegalia mellifera milled biomass harvested from the nine blocks at Neudamm farm. The CP content of Senegalia mellifera milled biomass ranged from 9.39 to 9.68 %DM while the NDF and ADF ranged from 59.17 to 64.33%DM and 43.77 to 48.01%DM, respectively. The condensed tannins (CT) content from all blocks did not differ (p >0.05) and had a mean of 0.02 to 0.03%DM as leucocyanidin equivalent (LE Absorbance at 550 nm). The results obtained from the feeding trial showed that there was significant difference (p <0.05) in the organic matter (OM) and ash content of different treatment diets. The apparent digestibility coefficient of DM, OM and NDF were not significantly different among treatments and the control diet (p >0.05). Goats fed Biochar treated diet had the highest nitrogen intake (13.74g/d (p <0.05), faecal nitrogen of 8.43g/d (p <0.05) and nitrogen retention of 5.11g/d (p <0.05), while goats fed the control feed (CNT), PEG and WA were similar (p >0.05). All treatments resulted in a positive nitrogen retention (p >0.05) with mean values ranging from 3.79 to 5.11 g/d. The study concluded that, there was a significant difference (p <0.05) in the chemical composition of S. mellifera milled biomass collected from nine blocks at Neudamm farm. Given the high CP content of the S. mellifera, this fodder resource can be considered a suitable supplement for poor quality (low N content) natural pastures and crop residues such as grass hay, straw and stover. The study also concluded that, there was a significant difference (p <0.05) in the DMI, and nitrogen balance in Boer goats fed with S. mellifera feeds treated with Wood ash (WA), Polyethylene glycol (PEG, 6 000) and Biochar (BIO). The study therefore recommends that each detannification method should be tested at different rates of inclusion in S. mellifera bush based feed resources.Item A financial analysis of producing pellets from the encroacher bush Senegalia Mellifera as a potential livestock feed: A cost benefit analysis approach(University of Namibia, 2020) Shiimi, Dorthea K.About 70 million hectares of land in Namibia is suitable for agriculture, of which approximately 71% is utilized by livestock farmers. Namibia’s Livestock Producers are faced by bush encroachment that reduce the carrying capacity of agricultural land due the suppresion of perennial grasses and herbs thus limiting rangeland productivity. Namibia can stand to make about N$734.7 million annually from bush-based feed production which could reduce the current feed cost. Thus, this study assessed whether harvesting of the bush encroacher Senegalia mellifera at Neudamm farm to produce animal feed on a commercial basis was viable. The objectives underlying the study were to use a Cost Benefit analysis (CBA) model to determine the viability of the production as well as to use a Willingness To Pay (WTP) method to determine the market availability of the bush-feed pellets. CBA indicators like Net Present Value (NPV) and Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) were used to determine viability. An online survey and a key informant questionnaire were used to collect data on the WTP of farmers for the bush-based feed. A total sample size of 33 respodents was used. Two methods were compared, a highly mechanized and a manual method of production. Judging from the positive NPV and a BCR greater than 1, the results suggested that both methods were viable. The highly mechanized method was found to have a NPV N$ of 73,965,835.43 and BCR of 2.28 while the manual method had a NPV N$ 62,086,180.39 and BCR of 2.66. The avarage WTP for the bush-based feed was 173.07 per 50 kg bag. The results suggested that the associated costs and benefits of producing bush-based feed pellets using encroacher bush (Senegalia mellifera) is viable and investing in the project should be considered. It was recomended in this study that small scale and upcoming farmers consider venturing in the mannual method of production as it was less costly comparered to the mechinized method, it was also recommended that efforts be put in creating awareness about bush-based feed pellets to increase the WTP for the pellets by farmers. The government should also provide encroacher bush de-bushing programms to help with high de-bushing costs.Item Effects of chemical treatment on nutrient content and palatability of Senegalia Mellifera and Cataphractes Alexandraii bush-based feeds(University of Namibia, 2019) Ndozi, Hosticks MukendwaThe objectives of this study were to determine: (1) the chemical composition of untreated Senegalia mellifera and Catophractes alexandrii; (2) the effect of NaOH and urea treatment at different levels (0%, 4%, 6% and 8%) on chemical composition of S. mellifera milled samples; (3) the nutrient composition of formulated diets from chemically and fibrolytic enzyme treated S. mellifera samples; (4) palatability of the feeds developed from S. mellifera, when fed to weaned Damara sheep. Samples consisting of small branches and twigs were analysed for chemical composition. Samples of S. mellifera were also treated for 21 days and the chemical composition was determined. Feed formulated from treated and untreated S. mellifera was assessed for palatability over 12 days in Damara sheep. The results showed that S. mellifera had a higher (P < 0.05) concentration of CP, NDF, ash and Ca than C. alexandrii. The concentration (g/kg DM) for S. mellifera were: CP (147.42 ± 0.37), NDF (653.63 ± 0.41) and ash (52.27 ± 0.11). Chemical composition (DM, OM, CP, EE, ADF, NDF, ash) of treated S. mellifera was influenced (P < 0.0001) by treatment. Treatment with 4% NaOH, 4% urea, 6% urea and 8% urea increased (P < 0.05) CP concentration compared to control. Formulated diets differed (P < 0.05) in their DM, OM, EE, NDF, ADF and ash. The control diet had higher (P < 0.05) NDF concentration compared to diets with 4% urea or 4% NaOH. Feed intake was influenced (P < 0.05) by day and diet x day interactions. Urea (8%) and NaOH (4%) treatment improved the chemical composition and palatability for S. mellifera feed, but the reaction conditions including chemicals, concentration, moisture content, pH and duration need to be optimized, to allow greater reduction of the lignin concentration.Item Rangeland utilisation by cattle in the lower Kuiseb River area, Namib Desert, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2019) Shiningayamwe, EricThere is a general lack of information on how cattle utilise the lower Kuiseb River rangelands, their feeding behaviour and how they deal with intense heat. This study aimed at understanding cattle habitat selection (considering that they are free ranging in the absence of a herder), and their foraging behaviour in relation to air temperature along the lower Kuiseb River area in the Walvis Bay Rural Constituency, Erongo Region. The study was carried out at three farmer settlements along the Kuiseb River area through remote sensing technology, where six selected cows were fitted with Global Position System (GPS)–enabled collars, two cattle per site from 09 April 2019 to 30 June 2019. The collars set to ten–minute sampling intervals to track their movement and understand how they select habitats. Soon after the collars were deployed, rare and unpredictable episodic rainfall in the study area allowed the rare opportunity to track cattle movement and behaviour before and after rain events in desert rangeland conditions. Cattle behaviour was interpreted by pairing observed behaviour with collar sensor data for the same animal over ten–minute intervals. Activities were categorised and scored for feeding, resting and walking, which were associated with ambient temperature to understand how cattle behaviour may relate to temperature. Data analysis was done using R, QGIS and SPSS, at 5 % level of confidence. The study revealed that there was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in habitat selection by cattle under dry and wet conditions. The distances over which livestock move to available forage did not significantly differ (P > 0.05) before and after rain, and temperature did not seem to be an important consideration as there was no significant relationship (P > 0.05) between ambient temperature, collar temperature and cattle foraging in the lower Kuiseb River area.Item Assessment of the impact of chemical de-bushing on herbaceous vegetation and ground-dwelling invertebrate communities at Neudamm farm(University of Namibia, 2020) Zeriua, Justine N.This study aimed at assessing the impacts of chemical de-bushing on herbaceous plants and ground-dwelling invertebrates at Neudamm farm. Three experimental sites (camp’s 5, 6 and 7) treated in 2015, 2016 and 2017 respectively with a general purpose arboricide were selected alongside one (camp 4) untreated site. Pitfall traps were placed under 15 Senegalia mellifera trees which were strategically selected in each site. Three quadrates, two placed contiguous under the canopy and one outside the canopy of fifteen Senegalia mellifera trees were used to identify and record the herbaceous plants. The herbaceous species diversity was higher in the control camp than in the other camps (H=29.285, d.f = 3, p < 0.000), while the ground- dwelling invertebrate diversity (H= 2.497, d.f = 3, p < 0.5) and Family richness (H = 0.285, d.f = 3, p =0.963) did not differ significantly between the camps. However, species richness was higher in camp 5 (treated in 2016) than in the control camp (H= 13.085, d.f = 3, p < 0.000). The HCA on binary data separated the herbaceous plant species into 6 clusters and the pitfall traps into 7 clusters indicating the significant changes in herbaceous species and invertebrate family composition due to chemical treatment, among other factors. Grass biomass was higher in camp 5 (p < 0.001) and the control camp had the highest ground cover (H= 8.5 and p- value= 0.037). This study has shown that arboricides have significant direct negative effect on herbaceous vegetation and, to a lesser extent, on the ground- dwelling invertebrates.Item Identification, quantification and nutritional characterization of agro-industrial by products in Namibia as potential supplements of the bush-based feeds(University of Namibia, 2019) Kamati, Magdalena IlongeniFeed shortage, especially during dry seasons, is a critical threat to livestock production in Namibia. Innovative feed production from encroacher bush species has benefits of increasing fodder availability and controlling bush encroachment. Bush-based feed is characterized by high fiber and low protein content which makes it less palatable and digestible to livestock; hence often requires supplementation with commercial feed ingredients which increase bush feed production costs. This study was undertaken to identify, quantify and characterize the nutritive values of agro-industrial by-products (AIBPs) in Namibia as potential supplements for the bush-based feed. A survey conducted for a period of six months in 2018 (from March to September) targeting agricultural processing companies across Namibia identified a total of ten cereal by-products (sorghum brew residue, pearl millet bran, hominy chop, malt dust coarse, malt dust fine, malted barley, maize chop, wheat bran, traditional spent grains, and industrial spent grains), six oil seed-by-products (marula oil seed cake, olive oil press cake, jojoba oil press cake, !Nara oil press cake, press cake) and four horticultural by-products (potato peels, herb wastes, cull vegetables, and winery and spirits by-products). Cereal by-products can be available throughout the year and majority is sold at a price range of N$0.20-N$2.90/kg. Pearl millet bran and hominy chop had the highest yearly production volumes of about 60 000kg/year. The highest yearly production volume for oil seeds was 2000 kg. Majority of the oil seeds are mainly used as fertilizer and available from April to December. Most of the horticultural by-products are seasonally available, except for potato peels mainly from restaurants which have a year-round production. Chemical compositions, in vitro gas production, organic matter digestibility and metabolizable energy of some of the agro-industrial by-products identified were determined. The chemical compositions differed significantly (p≤0.05) among the cereal and oil seeds by-products categories. The Crude Protein (CP) contents (DM %) of the cereal by-products were in the range of 9 ±0.00 (Sorghum spent grains) to 21.95±0.29 (Brewer’s spent grains), while oil seed by-products CP were in the range of 7.55 (Olive (Olea europaea ) oil cake) to 37.30 ±0.20 (Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) oil press) and potato peels had 12.78±0.06% CP. Ether extract for the cereal by-products ranged from 1.37±0.06 (in Malt dust fine) to 9.29±0.06 (Pearl millet bran), 8.11±0.08 (in Manketti (Schinziophyton rautaneni) oil cake) to 53.59±0.08 (Marula oil cake) in oil seed by-products while potato peels (the only horticultural by-product analyzed) had 2.06±0.07% EE. Ash content (%DM) of cereal by-products ranged from 2.64±0.04 (Sorghum brew residue) to 5.39±0.02% (in Malt dust coarse) while for the oil seed by-product, the ash content ranged from 2.75±0.05 (Jojoba oil cake) to 5.31±0.00 (in Olive oil cake).The in vitro gas production, OMD and metabolizable energy also differed significantly (p≤0.05) among AIBPs. The organic matter digestibility (OMD) (% in dry matter (DM) basis) of the cereal by-products ranged from 55.55±0.50 (Brewer’s spent grains) to 83.50±0.50 (White maize chop) and in oil seed by-products OMD ranged from 38.95±0.15 (Marula oil press) to 59.35±0.15 (Jojoba oil cake). The metabolizable energy (ME) for the cereal by-products ranged from 9.30±0 MJ/Kg (Brewer’s spent grains) to 14.00±0.00 MJ/Kg (White maize chop) while for the oil seeds by-products ranged from 7.75±05 MJ/Kg (Manketti oil cake) to 15.95±05 MJ/Kg (Marula oil press) and potato peels had 11.05±0.05 MJ/Kg content of ME. Production volumes and high nutritive qualities of the agro-industrial by-products indicated their potential for utilization as energy and protein supplements for fibrous feeds low in crude protein and energy such as bush based feed in Namibia.Item Genetic diversity of the bovine leukocyte antigen (BoLA) and its association with resistance to ticks and tick-borne diseases in selected beef cattle breeds in Namibia(University of Namibia, 2018) Haikukutu, LaviniaThe bovine leukocyte antigen (BoLA) class II genes play a significant role in presenting processed peptides to CD4 + T lymphocytes. BoLA genes particularly class II are highly polymorphic, enhancing the number of peptides that an individual can recognise thereby triggering a cascade of immune responses. This study investigated the genetic diversity of the BoLA class II genes in 249 animals comprising of Nguni ecotypes, Bonsmara and Afrikaner cattle from Khomas, Omusati and Zambezi regions in Namibia. Molecular characterisation of the three cattle breeds was performed using four microsatellite markers (DRB3, DRBP1, RM185, BM1815) within the BoLA genes, or in close proximity, to assess genetic diversity and to determine the population structure. Ticks infesting the animals naturally were counted and identified. In addition, animals were screened for tick-borne infections (Anaplasma/ Ehrlichia and Babesia/ Theileria) using “catch-all” primers for Anaplasma/ Ehrlichia and Babesia/ Theileria cluster of species. A total of thirty seven alleles were identified across all breeds. Nguni cattle exhibited the highest level of genetic diversity (He = 0.728) and Bonsmara cattle had the lowest level of genetic diversity (He = 0.637). Extensive inbreeding (FIS = 0.247) was observed in Afrikaner cattle while Bonsmara cattle showed evidence of outbreeding (-0.057). The Bayesian cluster at K = 3 revealed genetic admixture between breeds. The overall Anaplasma/ Ehrlichia and Babesia/ Theileria infection prevalence across all breeds was 85% and 53%, respectively. Ticks infesting the animals included species (relative prevalence) of Hyalomma truncatum (35%), Hyalomma turanicum (2%), Hyalomma rufipes (29%), Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi (5%), Rhipicephalus evertsi mimeticus (9.5%), Rhipicephalus simus (16%), Rhipicephaluss appendiculatus (3%) and Amblyomma variegatum (0.5%). Alleles associated with tick and tick-borne disease resistance were identified. Alleles DRB3-289, DRB3-290, DRB3-291, DRB3-292, RM185-93 and BM1815-145 were associated with tick and tick resistance were identified. Allele DRB3-290, DRBP1-120, DRBP1-122 and DRBP1-126 were associated with decreased incidence of Anaplasma/Ehrlichia infections in Namibian cattle breeds. Significant allelic association (P ˂ 0.15) was found between three DRBP1 alleles (DRPB1-122, DRBP1-124, DRBP1-128), four alleles belonging to the RM185 locus (RM185-101, RM185-103, RM185-105, RM185-107) and resistance to Babesia/Theileria infections. These alleles can be used as potential markers for the selection of cattle with tick and tick-borne disease resistance. The results of this study can aid in future marker-assisted selection (MAS) in breeding programs for animals with superior tick and tick-borne disease resistance.Item An evaluation of the potential of selected indigenous Namibian forage legumes for feeding goats(University of Namibia, 2018) Thamina, Diina NandjabaThe objectives of this research were to determine the chemical composition, palatability, voluntary feed intake (VFI) and effects on body weights of Boer goats fed native forage legumes compared to lucerne and lablab. In experiment 1, the chemical composition of 14 legumes was determined. In experiment 2, the palatability of Crotalaria argyraea, C. podocarpa, Otoptera burchellii and Vigna lobatifolia was determined relative to Lucerne in a cafeteria feeding system over a 10-day period. In experiment 3 on VFI, 32 goats were randomly allocated to nine treatments with the legumes Lablab purpureus (LP), O. burchellii (OB), V. lobatifolia (VL) and Medicago sativa (LC) as follows: control (C); 18% inclusion (LP18, OB18, VL18 and LC18); and 31% inclusion (LP31, OB31, VL31 and LC31). All forage legumes except Meulobium candicans had CP ≥ 15%; the NDF (%) ranged from 30.3 ± 3.8 (C. heidmannii) to 56.1 ± 3.2 (L. purpureus) subsp. Uncinatus verde.var. rhomboideus. All the four legumes in experiment 2 were highly palatable relative to Lucerne, but a 5-day adaptation period was required for the Crotalaria species. Least squares means of VFI (g DM/day) were: 668.7± 8.8 (C), 821.2 ± 10.8 (LP18), 783.1 ± 9.9 (OB18), 777.7 ± 10.8 (VL18), 802.8 ± 10.8 (LC18), 994.4 ± 9.9 (LP31), 992.8 ± 10.8 (OB31), 1009.2 ± 10.8 (VL31) and 970.6 ± 10.8 (LC31). Legume supplementation of basal grass hay increased VFI at 31% compared to 18% inclusion level. Body weights were affected (P < 0.05) by treatment; the least squares means (kg) for C, LP18, OB18, VL18, LC18, LP31 OB31, VL31 and LC31 were: 19.2 ± 0.8, 22.1 ± 0.9, 17.6 ± 0.9, 18.1 ± 0.9, 16.4 ± 0.9, 18.9 ± 0.8, 16.6 ± 0.9, 21.1 ± 0.9 and 20.4 ± 0.9, respectively. Native forage legumes have the potential to improve nutrition of goats.Item Screening of indigenous forage legumes as potential fodder crops and protein source for livestock in Central Namibia(University of Namibia, 2016) Kaholongo, Lukas T.The objective of the study was to screen indigenous forage legumes found in central Namibia and evaluate their potential as fodder and protein source for livestock. The growth rate, biomass yield and nutritional value of four indigenous legumes (Otoptera burchellii, Vigna lobatifolia, Crotalaria argyraea and Cullen tomentosum) and four improved legumes (Lablab purpureus, Medicago sativa, Canavalia ensiformis and Vigna unguiculata) were evaluated in a split-plot design with Single superphosphate at varying levels (0, 60, 80 and 100 kg P/ha). Fertilizer application up to 80 kg P/ha increased biomass and 100-seed weight; responses for O. burchellii were however inconsistent. The legumes differed (P < 0.05) in biomass yield; least square means (tons/ha) were: L. purpureus (8.9 ± 0.3), V. lobatifolia (1.5 ± 0.4), O. burchellii (2.5 ± 0.3), V. unguiculata (4.4 ± 0.3), C. tomentosum (5.1 ± 0.4), C. ensiformis (4.0 ± 0.3) and M. sativa (4.7 ± 0.3). The 100-seed weight increased as P fertilizer level increased. The CP, ADF, NDF, ash and calcium differed (P < 0.05). The least square means for CP (% DM) at bloom stage were: L. purpureus (21.9± 0.3), V. lobatifolia (18.9± 0.4), O. burchellii (21.3± 0.3), V. unguiculata (18.9±0.3), C. tomentosum (20.9±0.3), C. ensiformis (20.4±0.3) and M. sativa (26.9±0.3). NDF ranged from 30.5 ± 1.6 to 42.4 ± 1.8 % DM. Phosphorus content was similar (P ˃ 0.05) among legumes. L. Purpureus and the indigenous legumes O. burchellii and V. lobatifolia have potential as fodder and protein source ipso facto could contribute substantially to improving nutrition of ruminants in central Namibia.Item Sustainable solutions to the resuscitation of agricultural cooperatives in Zimbabwe: A case for Manicaland Province(2015) Charinda, LorreineGovernments promote the use of cooperatives to enhance development of smallholder farmers. However, challenges are inevitable and this study investigated factors responsible for the collapse of agricultural cooperatives in Manicaland province of Zimbabwe, and developed propositions for use on a larger scale. Five cooperatives drawn from Mutasa and Chimanimani districts were chosen using purposive sampling based on overall performance of the cooperatives as main criterion (shown by available records) and management and staff availability. All selected cooperatives were willing to participate in the study and had been operational for more than five years. A qualitative research methodology was used, with focus group discussions (FGDs) and in-depth interviews for data collection. Participants included members of cooperatives, Agritex officers, field officers from different organizations and management of cooperatives. The performance of smallholder cooperatives was analyzed using the New Institutional Economics (NIE) theories namely transaction cost economics, agency theory, collective action theory and property rights theory. From the outcome, it was found that the general consensus among all participants was that the cooperatives are not sustainable in their current state. The results from the FGDs suggest that majority of respondents do not fully understand the cooperative principles and have high expectations of possible benefits. Due to the fact that some members joined cooperatives in order to access government funding and achieve some political objectives. Participants highlighted lack of skilled management, poor institutional and governance structures as the main problems affecting cooperatives. Results from the in-depth interviews suggest that the performance of the cooperatives was influenced by complexity of market environment and poor policy structures. Conclusion reached is that cooperatives require amendments to the Cooperatives Act of 2005 to promote good institutions and good governance. Also policy interventions are needed such as provision of regulatory framework that would allow competitive market environment in the study area.Item A situational analysis of livestock production in liberia: A case study of Nimba, Bong and Montserrado countries(2012) Andrews, Leelia R.The main objective of the study was to analyze the situation of livestock production in Liberia. The specific objectives were to analyze the population of livestock in Liberia, to establish the factors limiting the production of livestock in Liberia, to analyze Liberia land use system of the livestock production sector and to analyze the economic impact of livestock production in Liberia. The study was a case study which surveyed three counties in Liberia: Nimba, Bong and Montserrado. Nimba and Bong are in the north and Montserrado in the south respectively. Descriptive analysis was conducted through the triangulation involving both qualitative and quantitative research methods and primary data, well- structured questionnaires, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and meetings with the relevant stakeholders. The study findings revealed that livestock production in Liberia is on the increase. However, livestock production in Liberia is limited by factors such as respondents’ lack agriculture training, insufficient infrastructure, lack of veterinary services, insufficient finances, shortage of commercial feed supplements, inefficient and ineffective implementation of Government policies, lack of market and competition from imported livestock produce. The study established that pasture land is largely communal and is continuously used for livestock production. The study found that there is a little extent of application of pastureland management practices. Most of the farmers produce livestock for immediate consumption and sustainable livelihoods and not for commercial purposes. The study recommended that livestock should be included in the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), the public sector should develop and enforce policy and regulatory frameworks for livestock, regulatory capacity of livestock authorities should be strengthened, collective action among smallholders should be strengthened. Moreover, the government should encourage Private or Public-NGO partnerships to deliver livestock services to livestock farmers.Item Investigation of biting and non-biting flies as vectors for Bacillus Anthracis in Etosha National Park, Namibia.(2013) Nalisa, MwangalaThe role of flies in the spread of anthrax, an animal disease caused by the spore-forming pathogen Bacillus anthracis, have been reported as far back as the early 1900s. Studies have implicated flies from families of Tabanidae, Muscidae, Calliphoridae and other dipteran species. This study was undertaken in the Okaukuejo area of ENP to establish the role of biting and non-biting flies that may act as vectors for B. anthracis; and at what concentrations of Bacillus anthracis do they carry and also to determine whether isolated strains of bacteria contained bacteriophages. For this purpose non-biting flies were collected from anthrax positive carcasses using a makeshift trap and analysed on TSPBA after being disinfected and squashed in 0.85% saline. Isolated strains were analysed for the presence of phages and vegetation containing fly excretions was collected. Nzi fly traps were used to collect biting flies. These results show that non-biting flies found belonged to Calliphoridae and Muscidae families the most abundant biting flies were from Tabanidae family. Of the 110 non-biting flies analysed from positive carcasses 25.4% were positive for Bacillus anthracis. The maximum concentration found in an individual was 4.0 x103 CFU/fly. There was no correlation between fly species and concentration of spores within flies. Non-biting flies mean spores were statistically equal to parenteral LD50s of Impala [100; 250] but were too low with respect to oral doses LD50s of horses and of impala. No bacteriophages were isolated from B. anthracis strains. Flies of families Calliphoridae and Muscidae can act as mechanical vectors in ENP more likely through parenteral means including myiasis infection; oral transmission via regurgitation and defecation on leaves could not be established. Biting flies as vectors of anthrax needs further investigation. Measures that control fly populations during anthrax outbreaks may be considered.Item Performance of broiler chickens fed Pearl Millet as an energy source and Acacia Karroo leaf meal as an additive.(2013) Hafeni, SesiliaThis study was undertaken to determine the performance and meat sensory attributes of broiler chickens fed with Pearl Millet (Pennisetumg laucum) as a replacement for maize, as well as the potential of tanniferous Acacia karroo (A. karroo) leaf meal as an additive on broiler leanness. The optimum level at which maize can be replaced by pearl millet was also determined. Nutritional compositions of pearl millet and A. karroo leaf meal were determined using the standard Association of Official Analytical Chemists protocols. One hundred and one day old chicks of the breed Cobb 500 were obtained from Namib Poultry Industries and raised on a two phase feeding regime (i.e. starter for 3 weeks and finisher for 4 weeks). During the finisher phase they were fed different treatment diets. In the first trial the treatment diets were formulated such that maize was replaced with pearl millet at levels of 25% (T2), 50% (T3), 75% (T4) and 100% (T5). A standard commercial finisher diet was used as the control (T1). Parameters studied were; voluntary feed intake, weight gain, feed conversion ratio (FCR), fat pad, breast weight, thigh weight, gizzard weight, meat sensory attributes and preference. In the second trial the standard commercial finisher diet was seeded with A. karroo leaf meal as an additive at levels of 0 g/kg (T1), 5 g/kg (T2), and 20 g/kg (T3), to study the effects on the feed intake, weight gain, feed conversion ratio (FCR), fat pad, breast weight, thigh weight, gizzard weight, meat sensory attributes. Feed intake was recorded daily while weight gain was recorded weekly. At the end of the feeding trials, 28 broilers were slaughtered at 42 and 49 days old and evaluated for organs weight (thigh, breast, fat pad and gizzard) and average consumer acceptance. The results of this study have shown that the best replacement level of maize with pearl millet was at 50 %. It was however, found that the replacement of maize by pearl millet can be done up to 100% without producing significantly lower performance (P>0.05) compared to the optimum replacement i.e. at 50%. The study showed that feed manufacturers can use pearl millet as an energy source in place of the imported maize. Addition of 20 g/kg A. karroo leaf meal had a tendency to reduce fat deposition. More than 5 g/kg of A. karroo leaf meal may be added in order to improve fat expression. From the sensory evaluation trial, all the treatments did not affect the preferences significantly meaning the optimum levels of using pearl millet (as a substitute for maize) and A. karroo (as an additive) can safely be recommended without affecting the acceptability and preference of the broiler meat produced.Item Determination of nutritive values of browsable plants utilised by cattle during the dry season in Sibbinda constituency of Zambezi Region - Namibia(2013) Kasale, FabianThis study was conducted in the Sibbinda constituency of Zambezi region in Namibia to determine and contrast the nutritional values of available browsable plants and to recommend and promote the use of these browsable plants and plant parts as cattle feed supplements during dry seasons. In depth focus group discussions and interviews were conducted to glean indigenous knowledge on how cattle utilize the browse in- situ. A total of 200 households from the Sibbinda constituency were interviewed through a questionnaire to identify locally important browse species. Besides that, cattle were followed and observed while grazing and browsing undisturbed .This was done to confirm and validate the indigenous knowledge obtained from focus group discussion with communal farmers in the Sibbinda constituency. The palatability was determined through a structured experiment were the browse was offered in feeding pens. The palatability trial revealed contrast in the palatability of leaves and pods browsed by cattle during the dry season in Sibbinda constituency. Browsable tree and shrub leaves were collected for botanic identification, chemical composition analysis and feed evaluation. A total of 10 different browse species were identified. Ranking analysis revealed the following five browse species as the most common ones in order of importance; Acacia erioloba, Dichrostachy cinerea, Guibourlia coleosperm and Colosphospermum mopane. The chemical composition, digestable energy, metabolisable energy and the digestibility were compared by F-Test using the SPSS software version 21. The crude protein (CP) values of the edible components ranged between 9.4 to 27.2% and were significantly different (P<0.05) across browse species. The crude fibre (CF) content was also significantly different (P<0.05) across species and CF values ranged from 14 to 36%. The total digestible nutrients (TDN) also differed (P<0.05) with a range of 53-72%. Nitrogen values ranged from 1.51% to 4.37 (P<0.05).Generally the differences in chemical composition between different browse species were significant.Item Determination of the effects of HIV/AIDS on farm income and food production on communal farms in Kavango Region(2011) Togarepi, CecilAbstract provided by authorItem An investigation into the potential contribution of small ruminants production to rural livelihood on Lofa country, Liberia(2011) Korsor, Morlu; ; ; ;Abstract provided by authorItem Impact of lifestock on vegetation and soil nutrients around water points in Highland Savanna rangelands, Namibia(2012) Mbango, OscarArtificial watering points can have significant ecological effects in typically arid and semi-arid rangelands where permanent natural surface water is scarce or absent for provision of livestock farming in dry lands Namibia. The impact of livestock grazing on the vegetation and soil status was studied along a grazing gradient from watering points in the Neudamm high land savannah area, in both large and small livestock management system during wet season. Eight artificial points were selected for the study. A 600 m transect was laid out perpendicular to the direction of the grazing gradient from watering points, more or less into the middle of each of the livestock grazing camps. On each transect of each grazing gradient seven 20 x 20 m sample plots were laid out at interval distances of 0 m, 25 m, 50 m, 100 m, 200 m, 400 m and 600 m from water points and at each sampling distance on the transect a nested design of 1 m2, 5 m2 and 20 m2 plots were used for sampling grasses, shrubs and trees resulting in a total of 56 plots in the experimental unit plots. All shrubs and trees were identified, counted and recorded. Density was presented for individual shrubs and trees per 25 m2, 400 m2 to a hectare and grass percentage cover in 1 m2, respectively. Plant species diversity was calculated for each plot using the Shannon-Wienner diversity index. The results indicated significantly (P 0.05) lower plant densities, species diversity, richness and evenness with close proximity to water points, than further away from the water points. Significant differences (P 0.05) were observed for soil particle size analysis, pH, ECw, OC, CEC, P, K, Mg, Ca, Na and K contents along the gradient from water points. Thus, this study concluded there are differences along grazing gradient possibly due to livestock impact of trampling and grazing on vegetation and soil nutrients. This negatively influences vegetation composition, structure, richness and diversity around water points. However, no significant difference (P 0.05) in the quantized impacts of grazing and trampling were observed on soil nutrients and vegetation properties by livestock in different grazing management systems i.e. large-cattle and small stock-sheep campsItem Assessment of vegetation diversity and rangeland condition in the Highveld communal grazing lands of Swaziland(2011) Mapako, LeslieDetermination of correct stocking rate based on current rangeland condition still remains a big challenge to livestock farmers. Assessment of vegetation diversity and current rangeland condition was carried out in four communal rangelands, namely Siphocosini, Hawane, Motshane and Nkhaba. The rangeland condition assessment method employed in this study was the ecological condition index (ECI) method. Grass species composition and dry matter were estimated using the point-intercept method and the direct harvest method using a metal frame (quadrat) respectively. Vegetation diversity was high. A total of 16 grass species were identified. Of these, 9 species were strong perennials and the remaining 7 were annuals. In addition, 5 species were identified as highly palatable, 6-moderately palatable and 4-less palatable species