UNAM Gā-aisib Repository
The UNAM Gā-aisib Repository serves as a central platform to preserve and showcase the university's scholarly output.
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Recent Submissions
An analysis of water demand and quality within the Iishana-system, Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2025) Eino, Junias; Busari, Afis Olumide
The Namibian people, particularly those living within the Iishana system, which is a
subset of the Cuvelai Basin, often encounter recurrent floods and droughts. After each
rainy season, the Iishana system dries up gradually, hence, water for both agricultural and
potable purposes becomes crucial. To enhance water availability, this study evaluated
water demand and quality within the Namibian Iishana system, considering planned
infrastructure developments and the rehabilitation of existing systems. This study
employed a physical interaction, as well as the administration of questionnaires, to
determine the population per-capita demand within the Iishana system. A thirty-year
population projection was used to estimate future water demand. Moreover, the
hydrological data (daily rainfall and temperature) from 2012-2021 were incorporated. As
the water quantity and quality are inseparable, ten water samples were collected for Water
Quality Index (WQI) and Multivariate Statistical Analysis using Minitab (21.2). The Piper
diagram generated using Grapher (20.2.321) further classified water types. The current
rural population and livestock water demand were estimated to be 2,479 and 4,282
m3
/respectively. Projected demand forecasts for 2033 (0.9 Mm3
/year), 2043 (0.5
Mm3
/year), and 2053 (0.1 Mm3
/year) indicate a declining trend, due to outmigration. More
so, water availability is found to be affected by climate change, making it insufficient to
meet demand. Climate data analysis showed a rising temperature trend, with annual
precipitation (310 mm) far exceeded by evaporation (2,500 mm), resulting in water level
drops and poor quality. The WQI scores (81.30-320.65) classified the water as unsuitable
for human consumption. The Principal Component Analysis (APA) identified key
influences: soil formation, mineral dissolution, microorganisms, and agricultural runoff.
The Piper diagram classified 100 % of the sampled water as Na+
-K
+ water types,
indicating salinisation. The water crisis in the area demands urgent, coordinated action to
balance supply enhancement with quality control. Therefore, it is crucial to harvest flood
and rainwater by expanding the size of natural pans in the study area for use during dry
periods. Water treatment for pans can augment the water supply for the rural population
Prevalence and factors influencing family planning utilization amongst women of childbearing age, Opuwo constituency, Kunene region, Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2025) Haipinge, Ester; Katangolo, Nakashwa
This study aimed to determine the factors that influence family planning uptalization
among women of childbearing age (15-49) in Opuwo Constituency, Kunene Region,
2024. The quantitative analytical cross-sectional study design was employed,
surveying 552 women aged 15-49. Data was collected using structured questionnaires
translated into the local Otjiherero language. The study found that only 28.8% of
women reported ever using contraceptives, with significant variations observed across
different age groups, tribes, and educational levels. Educational attainment was
positively correlated with contraceptive use (p<0.05), underscoring the importance of
education in reproductive health decisions. Women often cited side effects from
contraceptives 80 (20.3%), and logistical challenges such as distance to health
facilities 107 (27.2%) as reasons for non-use. The research identified critical barriers
that women in Opuwo, Kunene Region, face in practicing family planning. Though
the awareness level for contraceptive methods is generally high, actual utilization rates
are very low due to cultural, socio-economic, and logistical barriers. Addressing
cultural norms requires culturally sensitive educational programs, improved access to
healthcare services, and community engagement to address misconceptions while
incorporating local beliefs when promoting the benefits of family planning. These
interventions can empower women to make informed reproductive choices. The
findings provide a foundation for policymakers and health program implementers to
develop targeted strategies to enhance FP services and utilization in Namibia
Seed bacterization with plant growth-promoting endophytes: Impact on Okra productivity, nutraceuticals and antimicrobial properties
(University of Namibia, 2025) Ginindza, Thembakazi; Uzabakiriho, Jean Damascene
The growing challenges of population expansion, climate change, rising food costs,
and unpredictable rainfall patterns have intensified the need for sustainable agricultural
practices that boost crop productivity while minimising environmental impacts. One
promising strategy involves the combined use of plant growth-promoting endophytic
bacteria (PGPEB) with the environmentally friendly hydroponic technique to enhance
plant growth and functional quality. This study investigated the influence of seed
bacterization with three PGPEB strains, Kosakonia cowanii (KC), Bacillus
licheniformis (BL), and Cupriavidus metallidurans (CM), previously isolated from
Myrothamnus flabellifolius, on the productivity, nutraceutical accumulation, and
antimicrobial activity of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) under hydroponic
(Kratky method) conditions. Okra seeds were soaked in single and combined bacterial
inocula, germinated under dark conditions, and cultivated in a randomised complete
block design with three plants per pot, four replications, and eight treatments. Results
revealed significant improvements (P < 0.001) in seed germination percentage and
seedling vigour index among inoculated treatments compared to controls, with KC and
CM demonstrating strong individual and synergistic effects. BL was notably more
effective when used in combination with other bacteria. Furthermore, methanolic
extracts of okra pods from bacterized plants exhibited enhanced nutraceutical
properties, including elevated total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activity (up to
91% DPPH inhibition), and increased inhibition of α-amylase (92%) and αglucosidase (88%), key enzymes linked to diabetes management. Thin-layer
chromatography confirmed the presence of carotenes, while polysaccharides were
detected across all treatments. Antimicrobial assays revealed substantial activity
against pathogens such as Mycobacterium avium, Salmonella typhi, Candida albicans,
and Staphylococcus aureus, with the strongest effects observed in methanolic extracts
of BL-CM consortia. These findings underscore the potential of PGPEB consortia as
eco-friendly bio-stimulants to enhance okra seedling establishment, yield functional
bioactive compounds, and contribute to sustainable agriculture and novel nutraceutical
and antimicrobial development. Further exploration of PGPEB-based biofertilizers
may offer solutions for addressing chronic diseases and rising antibiotic resistance
Photosensitization of ZnS nanoparticles with metal-free dye sensitizer based on Thiazole and Isatin derivatives for solid state dye sensitized solar cell
(University of Namibia, 2025) Enkali, Ndapewa Linda; Uahengo, Veikko
Zinc Sulphide (ZnS) is one of the wide band gap (Wurtzile; 3.91eV and Spalerite;
3.54eV) semiconductors suitable for application in dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSCs).
However, ZnS absorb UV light which only contribute about 5% total energy of solar
radiation. By sensitizing ZnS photo anode with dye sensitizer in DSSC, light
absorption is extended to visible regions (which contribute 43% total energy) of solar
radiation spectrum. Despite this, discovering the best photo anode materials (sensitizer
and semiconductor) remains a challenge in DSSCs. In this work, an experimental
study on the photosensitization of ZnS nanoparticles with five different metal-free
dyes was carried out. The ZnS nanoparticles and five different Thiazole and Isatin
based metal-free dyes were synthesized and characterized. Grafted ZnS-dye samples
were fabricated and characterized and the effect of solvatochromism on dyes on ZnS
were investigated. All data were collected from X-ray diffractometer (XRD), Proton
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1HNMR), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopy and analyzed Ultraviolet and Visible light (UV-vis) spectroscopy. XRD
confirms that the crystal structure of the ZnS nanoparticles and the chemical structures
of dyes and their vibration frequencies were confirmed by 1HNMR and FTIR,
respectively. Among the five dyes, Dye1, Dye2 and Dye5 showed best photo response
before and after grafted on ZnS nanoparticles. Broad peaks and high absorption
intensities were observed on these dyes. Little or no absorption were observed for
Dye3 and Dye4 before and after grafted on ZnS nanoparticles
Factors that influence adolescent on the use of contraceptives in the dreams project, Khomas region Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2025) Embula, Simaneka; Sibalatani-Libuku, Erica
Contraceptive use is crucial for preventing unintended pregnancies and sexually
transmitted infections (STIs) among adolescents. However, low contraceptive uptake
in Sub-Saharan Africa remains a significant public health concern. The study fit a
binary logistics model, to explore fctors influencing contraceptive use among
adolescents in the DREAMS project within the Khomas Region, Namibia, to identify
and analyze the demographic, social, and economic factors associated with
contraceptive use among adolescents, to evaluate the associations between adolescent
knowledge and attitude levels regarding contraceptives and their actual contraceptive
use. A quantitative cross-sectional survey was conducted among 359 adolescent girls
(aged 15-19 years) in the Khomas region, Namibia. A bivariate and binary logistic
regression analysis assessed the association between factors and contraceptive use.
The results showed that adolescents’ age, occupation level, method of contraceptive
use, reason for not using contraceptives and parent’s awareness on the use of
contraceptives were associated with contraceptive use. The results also showed that
living arrangements, particularly living with one parent, were associated with higher
contraceptive use. The results further showed that parental awareness of their child's
contraceptive use was positively associated with actual use. In addition, the result
showed that there was a significant difference between those who discussed the
contraceptive methods with their health provider. Contraceptive use among adolescent
girls exhibits strong significant association, even though some demographic,
instructional, and other factors were not associated with contraceptive use. Similar
studies in the future need to consider reasons behind specific living arrangement
influences and delve deeper into the dynamics of partner and family communication
An investigation of the contributions made by civilians during Namibia’s liberation: A case study of selected war narratives from Oshitudha in Omusati region, Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2025) Iiyambo, Gabriel Iithembu; Shigwedha, Vilho
Civilians from the Oshitudha village, in Omusati region, made immense contributions
during the war for Namibia’s independence from apartheid South Africa’s rule of
Namibia. The objectives of this study were to examine the role played by selected
civilians in Oshitudha village by supporting members of the Peoples Liberation Army
of Namibia (PLAN), who fought against apartheid South African forces in Namibia.
A number of Oshitudha residents who witnessed the effect of war on Oshitudha
civilians were interviewed. Their collective testimonies disclosed an amicable social
and political interaction between the local population and PLAN combatants.
Interviewees’ accounts also collaborated the mainstream local narratives regarding
numerous atrocities that PLAN collaborators incurred in the hands of the South
African Security Forces (SASF) in Namibia. The findings of the study established that
many Oshitudha civilians supported PLAN combatants with food, water, civilian
clothes, transport, medicine, shelter, and intelligence information about the SASF. The
study also revealed that exile-bound civilians who, in most cases, came from western
Owamboland were regularly accommodated by residents of Oshitudha village for
weeks as they awaited the arrival of PLAN combatants to escort them to Angola. In
efforts to stop civilians support for PLAN, the SASF unleashed terror on Oshitudha
civilians, which resulted in loss of lives, disappearance, permanent injuries, and loss
of properties. Nevertheless, the presence of PLAN combatants who were from
Oshitudha solidified the support of Oshitudha civilians, who treated them as one would
treat his or her biological children. The study concludes that the assistance that
Oshitudha civilians gave PLAN combatants was vital for the continuation of the
Namibian armed liberation struggle. Lastly, it recommends further areas of research,
ii
such as the official recognition of civilians who contributed immensely to the
Namibian armed liberation struggle, as war veterans
The culpability of men in gender-based violence and their role in its alleviation: The case of Oshakati town, Oshana region, Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2025) Iipinge, Irya K.T.; Omomowo, Kolawole E.
Gender-based violence remains highly prevalent in Namibia, with high incidences
reflected in the national crime statistics. This study investigated the moral culpability
of men in gender-based violence and their role in its alleviation in Oshakati, Oshana
region, Namibia. A case study research design was utilised, based on a qualitative
research approach. Twenty-three participants were purposively selected for the study,
and one-on-one semi-structured, in-depth interviews were used to collect the data.
The collected data were thematically analysed. Three themes emerged from the
thematic analysis, namely, effects of GBV, moral culpability of men in GBV and
mitigating GBV. The study concluded that the general population understands GBV,
the types of GBV and its effects. Women, younger women in particular, are more
vulnerable to GBV. GBV is propelled by the assertion of male dominion, which
could be informed by cultural practices that promote a gender hierarchy. Although,
women report GBV cases to the authorities, there are instances of coercion from both
their family and their partners’ family for the cases to be dropped. Moreover, men
are more likely to commit GBV due to alcohol and drugs abuse. While men are
culpable in the perpetration of GBV, there are indications that they can also
contribute to its mitigation through education and enrolment in support groups
The use of social media by presidential candidates during Namibia’s 2019 election campaigns in Windhoek
(University of Namibia, 2025) Iikuyu, Agnes S.; Kalusopa, Trywell
Social media has emerged as one of the most effective communication platforms for
attracting voters during electoral campaigns. The study aimed to assess how social
media was used during Namibia’s 2019 Presidential election campaigns by the top
three political parties: the Southwest Africa People’s Organisation (SWAPO) party,
the Independent Patriots for Change (IPC) party and the Popular Democratic
Movement (PDM) party. The study was based on a pragmatic approach and utilised
an explanatory convergent parallel mixed-method research design. The study sample
consisted of 385 respondents from Windhoek, three (3) Party Coordinators from the
top three political parties (SWAPO, IPC and PDM) and three (3) social media
platforms, namely, Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, respectively. Data was
collected through online questionnaires, structured interviews, and a content analysis
scheme. Descriptive statistics were used to describe frequencies with data
presentation in graphs and charts, while qualitative data were thematically
categorised and presented narratively. The quantitative and qualitative data sets were
compared, contrasted, and integrated to produce a single interpretation, thereby
drawing appropriate conclusions. The study established that previous literature
indicated that Facebook and WhatsApp were the most used social media platforms
in Namibia, whereas this study showed that in Namibia, Facebook, Twitter, and
Instagram are the most used social media platforms with Telegram and YouTube
being the least used platforms. The study also found poor social media engagement
between Windhoek residents and political candidates during Namibia’s 2019
presidential election campaigns. The study recommended that political parties make
more use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram to
communicate and engage with voters and share more political content to entice
voters
Resilience on the street: Lived experiences of car guards in Windhoek’s central business district
(University of Namibia, 2025) Gawaseb, Dawid; Tjirera, Ellison
This study delves into the challenges and aspirations of car guards, a vulnerable
community aiming to improve their overall well-being. The research, conducted through
semi-structured interviews guided by qualitative methodology, offers profound
explanations for the multifaceted struggles faced by car guards. The interview used a semistructured guide, which was meticulously designed to capture the rich and diverse
experiences of car guards. In addition, photographs were used as a supplementary method
to collect data, offering a visual context for their living and working conditions. The
findings illuminate the complexities of car guards’ lives, highlighting issues such as
limited health care access, inadequate housing, financial vulnerabilities, and occupational
hazards. Despite these challenges, the study underscores the remarkable resilience,
determination, and hope demonstrated by car guards as they navigate their precarious
circumstances. This study recommends urgent policy reforms, including the revision of
restrictive municipal bylaws, and emphasises the importance of addressing basic needs
such as healthcare, clean water, and nutrition. Education and skills development
programmes are advocated to enhance employability, coupled with financial support
mechanisms and community engagement initiatives. Environmental safety training and
psychosocial support services are essential. Empowering car guards to advocate for their
rights and involving them in decision-making processes are crucial steps towards creating
a more inclusive and supportive urban environment. By implementing these
recommendations, society can recognise and nurture the resilience of car guards, thus
fostering a compassionate and equitable society for all. This comprehensive approach,
informed by qualitative research and visual data, contributes significantly to
understanding the unique experiences of car guards and supports their journey towards a
brighter future
An investigation of the effect of Kigelia Africana fruit fractions on diabetes bio-markers in alloxan monohydrate induced diabetes Wistar rat models
(University of Namibia, 2025) Muyenga, Tumelo; Bamitale, S.K.D.
Diabetes affects 19 million people in Africa, with 60% of diabetic patients opting for
traditional therapies due to cost-effectiveness, accessibility, and perceived safety. Kigelia
africana (Bignoniaceae) is used as a traditional antidiabetic remedy, but data on the
specific phytochemicals responsible for its benefits and safety are limited. This study
investigated the antidiabetic properties of Kigelia africana fruit fractions and their effects
on diabetes markers in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. The chemical composition of the
bioactive fractions was determined, while cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of the crude
extracts were also analysed.
The antidiabetic effects of the Kigelia africana fruit extract were compared with those of
glibenclamide in 54 alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Fractions were obtained using liquidliquid and column fractionation. The effects of Kigelia fractions on lipid profile, blood
glucose, alanine aminotransferase, and creatinine levels were determined.
Histopathological changes in the liver, kidneys, heart, brain, and pancreas were examined.
In vitro bioactivity against alpha-amylase, alpha-glucosidase, glucose utility, and glucose
uptake in Caco2 colorectal cells was determined for the bioactive ethyl acetate fraction.
The phytochemical profile was obtained using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
(GC-MS). Total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, and free radical scavenging
activity were determined. Mutagenicity and genotoxicity were assessed using quantitative
fluorescence microscopy and compared with Ames results obtained in this study.
The ethyl acetate fraction at 1000mg/kg significantly reduced blood glucose levels to 8.16
± 4.4 mmol/L from 28.42 ± 2.7 mmol/L after 28 days, comparable to glibenclamide
xi
(p=0.15). In vitro studies showed its α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. Animals receiving
Kigelia fruit fractions and extracts showed decreased weight (p<0.05). The ethyl acetate
fraction produced a more favourable lipid profile than glibenclamide. Inter-group
variations were observed in triglycerides (p=0.03), total cholesterol (p =0.001), and nonHDL cholesterol (p=0.0007) levels. Biochemical and histological examinations revealed
improved cell viability in the liver, kidneys, and nervous system of treated rats.
No significant differences in DPPH inhibition, TPC, or TFC were observed amongst the
fractions. GC-MS analysis showed that the most bioactive fraction contained 11"(2-
cyclopenten-1-yl) undecanoic acid, (+)- and cyclopentane undecanoic acid, along with the
indole alkaloids Akuammilan-17-ol-10-methoxy, N-nitroso-2-methyl-oxazolidine and
epoxide Oxirane2.2″ -(1.4-butanediyl) bis-.
The aqueous extract had no effect on cell viability, whereas the ethyl acetate extract caused
a concentration-dependent decrease in cell viability (IC50 = 414.8 ± 8.69 µg/mL). Fruit
extracts showed similar effects on His+ revertants as the negative control, indicating no
mutagenic activity. The highest concentration of ethyl acetate fruit extract increased the
average nuclear area of Vero cells (IC50 EtOAc = 338.6± 1.058 µg/mL). After 48 hours,
no significant changes were observed in the ratio of multi+dual to mononucleated Vero
cells.
K. africana fruit fraction improved glucose and lipid profiles and the histoarchitecture of
organs in diabetes-induced rats. It showed notable alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity,
whereas its alpha-amylase inhibitory activity was limited. At therapeutic doses, the extracts
did not display genotoxic properties. This study identified the bioactive phytocomposition
xii
of this fruit, highlighting its potential as a medicinal agent for the treatment of diabetes
mellitus. It suggests a potential natural alpha-glucosidase inhibitor and phytocompounds
that could serve as lead compounds for developing new antidiabetic medications.