UNAM Gā-aisib Repository
The UNAM Gā-aisib Repository serves as a central platform to preserve and showcase the university's scholarly output.
Communities in the Gā-aisib Repository
Select a community to browse its collections.
Recent Submissions
A statistical analysis of factors influencing first teenage pregnancy in Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2025) Nghikongwa, Rosalia; Indongo, N.
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that about 21 million girls aged
15-19 years in developing countries became pregnant in 2019. In Namibia
Teenage Pregnancy has been a national concern because of the implications to
education attainment and individual socio-economic development. The 2013
Namibia Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) indicated that 19% of women
aged 15-19 had begun childbearing which represented a 4% increase in teenage
pregnancies since 2006.
This study aimed to identify factors associated with teenage pregnancy in Namibia.
Specifically, the study also aimed to describe the regional variation of teenage
pregnancy in Namibia; and to assess the influence of socio-demographic and
behavioural factors on teenage pregnancy. The study was mainly quantitative and
based on secondary analysis of data. The target population was all female
teenagers aged 15-19 and the main source of data were the 1992, 2000, 2006 and
2013 NDHS. The methods of analysis used were descriptive, bivariate, binary
logistic regression model and cox proportional hazards model. Regional variations
was used to examine the trend and extent of teenage pregnancy. Descriptive and
Chi-square tests were performed to highlight the prevalence and regional
variations of teenage pregnancy, while the binary logistic regression was used to
estimate the probability of experiencing teenage pregnancy taking into account
socio-economic and demographic factors. The Cox Proportional Hazards model
was further used to model the survival time to first pregnancy amongst teenagers
with different background characteristics.
Overall the study revealed regional variations of teenage pregnancy whereby
Kavango region recorded the highest prevalence across all the years whilst Hardap
region recorded the lowest prevalence across all the years. The results also showed
that age of respondent, age at first intercourse, education, current contraceptive
method, total children ever born, relationship of last sexual partner, employment
status, marital status, region and place of residence were significantly associated
with teenage pregnancy. Furthermore, the results also revealed that teenagers had
a survival chance of experiencing their first birth at 17 years.
This study concluded that a number of socio-economic and demographic factors
were associated with teenage pregnancy in Namibia and recommended that
ii
adolescent friendly services at hospitals and clinics should be strengthened and
teenagers should be given relevant information on contraceptives to make
appropriate and informed decisions on contraceptive usage. The life skills
curriculum for the Junior and Secondary learners should also be improved to
include topics relating to awareness and prevention of teenage pregnancy. There
is also need for robust awareness campaigns on prevention of teenage pregnancy
targeted to teenagers in more affected regions such as in Kavango and Zambezi
regions
Impact of human activities and environmental variables on habitat use of Heaviside’s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus heavisidii) and bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) in Walvis Bay: A passive acoustic monitoring approach
(University of Namibia, 2025) Nghaangulwa, Priskilla P. N.; Iitembu, Johannes
The rapid expansion and scope of development along marine coastlines threaten marine
mammals with cumulative effects from human practices. such as vessel strikes, by-catch,
entanglement, debris ingestion, petroleum exploration, underwater shipping noise, and
other noise pollution. This study aimed to understand the impacts of environmental and
anthropogenic factors on the habitat use patterns of two dolphin species; Heaviside’s
dolphins (Cephalorhynchus heavisidii) and common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops
truncatus) which are a small, localized population, at two key sites in Walvis Bay: Afrodite
Beach and Pelican Point. The specific objectives were to: (a) Investigate the influence of
anthropogenic factors (boat sonar and a period harbor expansion and their associated noise)
on the diel present patterns and habitat use of C. heavisidii at Pelican Point and T. truncatus
at Afrodite Beach. (b) Assess whether environmental factors (time of day, season, moon
illumination, temperature, wind direction and wind speed) influence habitat use of C.
heavisidii at Pelican Point and T. truncatus at Afrodite Beach. (c) Investigate the
interspecific influence of T. truncatus on the habitat use patterns and diel presence of
heavisidii at Pelican Point. (d) Assess the impacts of harbor expansion on the seasonal
distribution and habitat use of C. heavisidii and T. truncatus, comparing patterns of
presence and area usage before and during the development process. The study used data
obtained from the Namibian Dolphin Project and collected using a Passive Acoustic
Monitoring (PAM) over a long-term study period of 2009-2014 (pre construction) and
2015-2018 (during construction). Acoustic data was collected using C-POD hydrophones
with sounds extracted and processed using the C-POD developer software CPOD.exe
v2.033. A hurdle modelling approach was used to investigate sonar, time of day, season,
i
period of study, and environmental parameters predictor variables (water temperature, wind
speed and direction and moon illumination) potentially influencing dolphin presence and
behavior at these sites. The results showed that boat-related noise had a significant impact
on the diel presence ((p ˂ 0.001) at Pelican Point and (p ˂ 0.001) at Afrodite Beach) and
habitat utilization (p= 0.0433 at Pelican Point and p = 0.0153 at Afrodite Beach) of both
species. Environmental elements such as moon illumination (p ˂ 0.001), wind direction (p
= 0.025), wind speed (p = 0.0156), and temperature (p ˂ 0.001) have a significant impact
on their behaviors. Furthermore, inter-species interactions were observed, with T. truncatus
having a considerable influence on C. heavisidii, especially at seasonal time scales. As a
result, the study proposes targeted noise reduction from boats and the incorporation of
seasonal dynamics into conservation planning
Resolving acceleration to very high energies along the jet of Centaurus a, based on H.E.S.S. data from 2004–2020
(University of Namibia, 2025) Simon, Tuwilika N.; Backes, Michael
Centaurus A (Cen A), is the nearest known radio galaxy to Earth, and it is a
significant source of γ-ray emission, offering an excellent opportunity to study
high-energy astrophysical processes. The objective of this study was to investi
gate the particle acceleration to very high energies (VHE) along the jet of Cen A,
using data from the High Energy Stereoscopic System (H.E.S.S.) collected be
tween 2004 and 2020. The study reanalyzed 202 hours of previous data, along
with an additional 55 hours of new observations, to improve the understand
ing of VHE γ-ray emissions. The data were processed using the Paris Analysis
software, which allowed for the generation of sky maps and θ2 histograms to as
sess the γ-ray signal. Sky images of the detected γ-like events (ON map) and the
background (OFF map), which was estimated using the ring background method,
were produced in Flexible Image Transport System (FITS) format for the Sherpa
morphology fitting process. An elliptical Gaussian source model was fit to the
data by considering both the ON map and OFF map. The model was convolved
with the Point Spead Function (PSF), added to the OFF map and compared to
the ON map. The reanalysis of data collected between 2004 and 2016 from Cen A
has confirmed a significant VHE γ-ray emission, consistent with earlier results,
with a significance of 12.4σ. The analysis of the expanded dataset (2004–2020),
which includes 55 additional hours of observation, produced even more signifi
cant results, showing a γ-ray detection significance at a 14σ level. Furthermore,
the elliptical Gaussian model fitting results show that the VHE γ-ray emission is
elongated along the direction of the radio jet. The analysis framework lacked the
implementation of new CT5 camera simulations, which restricted the use of ad
ditional data from the larger CT5 telescope. This limitation highlights the need
for further improvements in the analysis tools and software, which may allow
future studies to provide even greater insight into the dynamics of Cen A’s jet.
Continued data collection from Cen A, especially with improvements in telescope
sensitivity, will further contribute to understanding of γ-ray production
An economic analysis of the market viability of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) in the Kavango east region of Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2025) Nakandjibi, Dortea; Von bach, Helmke Sartorius
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) is an underutilized legume with indefinite
potential for improving food security, livelihoods, and income, but remains
underutilized. This study’s objective is to investigate the Bambara groundnut's market
viability and potential in the Kavango East of Namibia, assessing the current market's
profitability, evaluating all value chain aspects from production to consumption, and
to determine the factors influencing market participation. The study interviewed about
172 respondents, including producers who also served as traders, 6 traders, and 78
consumers in the market. The data was collected on a face-to-face survey using semi
structured questionnaires. The study applied the Gross Margin, Household
Commercialization Index, Tobit regression model, and the Likert scale to address the
objectives of the research. With a positive gross margin of N$ 9 977/hectare, the study
shows that, on average, the Bambara groundnut farmers are making a profit from their
production. However, with an average HCI of 43%, more than half of the Bambara
groundnut produced is retained for household consumption. The Tobit model
identified age, market distance, years spent in farming, household Bambara groundnut
consumed, their own price/kg, and the substitute cow pea’s price/kg and market
drivers. Marketing challenges include access to credit, inconsistent supply, lack of
market information, and long distances to markets. Bambara groundnut production is
restrained by a lack of quality seeds, high cost of inputs, and low yields. The existing
value chain is simple, with farmers being the main actors, both producers and traders,
while processing is rather executed at the household level, indicating a limitation for
Bambara groundnut to be transformed into a full commercial crop. Recommendations
to utilise the potential of this legume include capacitating farmers for such
underutilized crops, tailored resources through policies and programs, to build a
resilient and viable value chain for underutilized crops in Namibia
An analysis of factors influencing the delivery of water and sanitation services in Windhoek informal settlements: The case of Havana and Okahandja park informal settlements
(University of Namibia, 2025) Hosea-Namwandi, Hilma; Vhumbunu, C. H.
Informal settlements have been regarded as accessible options for urban living, primarily due
to their affordability for low-income individuals or the unemployed. However, the influx of
people into cities in search of employment increases urbanisation and strains municipal
resources, impacting the provision of adequate water and sanitation services. This study
examines the factors influencing clean water supply and adequate sanitation services in
Windhoek's informal areas, specifically Havana and Okahandja Park. A sample of 52
individual sampled through stratified sampling, mainly from Havana and Okahandja informal
settlements, participated in the study. Employing a quantitative approach, the ontology was
used as a research philosophy meanwhile the study utilised SPSS to analyse data. Through
comprehensive research, it was found that several factors, including infrastructure limitations,
population density, and socio-economic conditions, significantly affect the provision of clean
water and sanitation in these areas. Specifically, the study reveals that residents in Havana and
Okahandja Park face challenges in regularly accessing clean water and adequate sanitation
services. Furthermore, the impact of the lack of these essential services in the informal areas is
profound, contributing to various health issues and diminishing overall quality of life. In light
of these findings, the study recommends targeted interventions such as infrastructure
improvements, community engagement programs, and policy reforms to enhance access to
clean water and sanitation services in Windhoek's informal settlements
An evaluation of the Namibian Police Force’s (NAMPOL’s) efforts in combating illicit drug trafficking in Namibia’s Windhoek city (2010-2023)
(University of Namibia, 2025) Manze, Kahimbi Susan; Mahela, Mumba T.
The study evaluates NamPol’s efforts in combating illicit drug trafficking in Namibia’s
Windhoek City. The study employed an exploratory research design which adopted a
mixed-method approach. It further, collected both primary and secondary data which were
transcribed, coded and presented in the form of charts and diagrams while secondary data
was obtained from books, journals and articles. During the collection of data, the study
found that the following; illicit drugs were prevalent in Windhoek as they entered the
town daily via sea, air, trucks, and the migration of people, the Abuse of Dependence
Producing Substance Act, Act 41 of 1971, was outdated as it does not cover the new
emerging synthetic illicit drugs, illicit drugs were smuggled in Windhoek by both local
and foreign nationals. The study further found that there is inadequate sniffing dogs, no x
ray machines at entry points, limited resources to compensate informers, a shortage of
manpower and there is a collaboration between criminals and corrupt officials at points of
entry. The study, therefore, recommends the following; provision and utilisation of x-ray
machines and sniffing dogs at entry points, and periodic reshuffling of officials deployed
at entry points to reduce corruption. Moreover, resources to compensate informers who
provide critical information leading to the successful arrest of suspects and for further
research, on areas such as the effectiveness of other stakeholders in combating illicit drug
trafficking, analysing the effects or impact of illicit drug trafficking on economic growth,
and the effectiveness of joint operations with other security clusters such as the Namibian
Defence Force, and City Police or Municipal/town officers to fight illicit drugs. Lastly,
the study recommends the review or amendment of Act 41 of 1971 as it is outdated
Analysis of risk factors associated with maternal deaths in Katima Mulilo District Hospital, Zambezi region, Namibia - 2016 to 2022
(University of Namibia, 2025) Nghinamwaani, Meameno T.; Mitonga, Kabwebwe Honore
Maternal mortality is a significant public health problem worldwide, it is an indicator for
the functioning of the health systems, thus, even a record of one (1) maternal death still
raises greater concern. World Health Organization (WHO) estimates 830 women die
every day from preventable causes related to pregnancy or childbirth-related
complications. Almost all, 99% maternal deaths occur in developing countries, with over
half of these deaths occurring in Sub-Saharan Africa. Based on Sustainable Development
Goal targets, Namibia commits to reduce maternal mortality ratio (MMR) to less than 70
per 100 000 live births by 2030. As of 2022, Namibia reported 145 maternal deaths.
Despite a decrease in maternal mortality for the past decade, the reduction is still greater
than the SDG target. This study aimed to describe and assess the trends and associated
risk factors for maternal deaths in Katima Mulilo District Hospital, Zambezi Region from
2016 to 2022. Adopted a quantitative cross-sectional analytical design, reviewing 30
maternal death records over the study period. Data were extracted from the maternal death
registers and the DHIS2 system, and statistical analysis was performed using Epi Info
7.2.6.0, with a significance level set at p < 0.05. Majority of maternal deaths occurred
among women aged 35 years and older (53.3%), single women (63.3%), and those
residing in rural areas (73.3%). Clinical factors such as high parity (≥4), HIV-positive
status, and causes of death including hemorrhage (33.3%) and hypertensive disorders
(26.6%) were significantly associated with maternal deaths. The trend analysis indicated
an overall increase in maternal deaths during the study period, peaking in 2021 with 9
deaths. Chi-square and Poisson regression analyses confirmed significant associations
between sociodemographic and clinical risk factors and maternal mortality. Maternal
deaths in Katima Mulilo District Hospital were driven by both clinical and
sociodemographic factors, emphasizing the need for improved emergency obstetric care,
particularly for high-risk groups such as women of ≥35 years and HIV-positive mothers.
Strengthening antenatal care services and implementing targeted interventions to address
hemorrhage and hypertensive disorders could mitigate maternal mortality in this region.
Recommendations include enhancing healthcare access for rural populations, increasing
antenatal care visits, and ensuring timely interventions for high-risk pregnancies
Factors associated with patients lost to follow-up on Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) treatment in Otjozondjupa region, Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2025) Ndume, Eunike N.; Iita, Hermine
Despite progress in HIV treatment globally, adherence is still a challenge in Sub
Saharan Africa. Namibia, while expanding access to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART),
falls short of the UNAIDS 95:95:95 targets, currently reaching 86:96:91. A major
concern is the high number of patients Lost to Follow-Up (LTFU), which increases
the risk of new infections and drug resistance. Purpose of the study: This study
identifies factors contributing to LTFU among ART patients in the Otjozondjupa
region. Methods: A quantitative cross-sectional analytical design was used, collecting
data from 286 LTFU patients across four high-volume health facilities. An excel-based
random sampling was used. Data analysis was conducted using Statistical Packaging
for the Social Science (SPSS). Results: The mean patient age was 41 years (SD = 9.7),
with 52% being male. Notably, 55.2% had been LTFU for over a year. Descriptive
analysis showed that 47% of patients missed their clinical appointments due to
Individual factors such as denial of their HIV status, demanding work schedules, and
fear of disclosing their status. Health structural factors were the next most common,
with 39% of patients missing appointments due to challenges accessing health
facilities, and negative experiences with healthcare workers. Lastly 14% of patients
were affected by structural or social factors, with issues such as poverty or social
stigma. Chi-square shows a strong positive correlation between employment status and
missed appointments (r = 0.788, p < 0.001). Regression analysis revealed employment
status significantly influenced appointment adherence (β = 0.442, p < 0.001),
explaining 62.1% of the variance. Conclusion: The findings underscore the importance
of addressing both personal and systemic barriers to improve ART adherence.
Interventions such as community outreach and tailored support for employed
individuals could help reduce LTFU rates and enhance HIV treatment outcomes in the
region
An analysis of ministerial powers in the allocation of marine resources in Namibia: Challenges and opportunities
(University of Namibia, 2025) Simasiku, Mutalipula R.; Kariseb, Kennedy
Discretion is granted by law, which means that it is the law that provides for the
existence of discretionary powers, and not the public authorities that decide
themselves whether to employ such discretionary powers. The Marine Resources
Act,2000 is applauded globally as a “good law” using scientific evidence-based and
rights-based approaches yet it “allegedly” formed the basis of the high-profile fish rot
scandal. A quick look at the Act and one notices the excessive power of the Minister
in allocating rights and determining the Total Allowable Catches of the rich marine
resources. Although flexibility in decision-making can help ensure that laws are
applied fairly and efficiently, because officials can tailor their actions to meet the
needs of individual cases. However, discretionary power is also a source of concern,
as it can give officials significant leeway in how they enforce the law, potentially
leading to inconsistency, bias, or abuse of power (the Fish rot scandal shows how
this power may be abused in the fishing sector, although the matter has not been
legally concluded).
Whereas, Namibia has adequate access to natural resources and a relatively small
population, its economic ranking globally ought to be on par with some developed
countries, who do not have access to such resources but command economic wealth
and power. Reluctance in implementing targeted government policies and
concentrated power in a political office bearer seems to be contributing to the
undesirable situation in the country’s marine ecosystem, limiting its maximum
potential
Difficult airway management of the obstetric patient among anaesthesia service providers in state hospitals across Namibia: A survey study
(University of Namibia, 2025) Van Wyk, Naomi Natasha; Terblanche, C.
Background: Obstetric airway management presents unique challenges due to
physiological changes during pregnancy, which increase the risk of difficult intubation.
This study addresses the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of anaesthesia providers in
managing difficult obstetric airways in Namibia's public hospitals.
Aim: To evaluate anaesthesia providers' practices, training, and adherence to
standardized guidelines for managing obstetric airways.
Settings and Design: This cross-sectional study surveyed anaesthesia service providers
from public hospitals across Namibia.
Methods and Materials: A structured questionnaire was administered online, assessing
participants' experience, adherence to guidelines, and use of equipment in obstetric
airway scenarios.
Statistical Analysis: A mixed-methods analysis used SPSS for descriptive and inferential
statistics, focusing on frequency distributions and Fisher's Exact Test for associations.
Thematic analysis of open-ended responses identified key themes, integrating qualitative
and quantitative findings to provide a comprehensive view of anaesthesia providers'
experiences and perspectives.
Results: Findings indicate varying levels of guideline adherence, with more experienced
providers displaying greater knowledge and consistent use of advanced airway
management tools. Challenges included limited access to specific equipment and
inadequate training in difficult airway scenarios.
Conclusion: The study underscores the need for enhanced training programs and
improved resource allocation to address gaps in knowledge and guideline adherence,
particularly among junior providers. Developing structured training programs and
ensuring resource availability across healthcare facilities may improve patient outcomes
in obstetric anaesthesia