UNAM Gā-aisib Repository
The UNAM Gā-aisib Repository serves as a central platform to preserve and showcase the university's scholarly output.
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Recent Submissions
A cadaveric and magnetic resonance imaging study of the anatomical variations of levator scapulae
(University of Namibia, 2025) Iita, Ester Ndagwedha; Wessels, Quenton
Levator scapulae muscle (LSM) is a deep muscle found in the posterior triangle of the
neck. It is reported to be a lead cause of neck and shoulder pain and discomfort in patients.
The muscle anatomically presents with an average of four muscle slips, originating from
the transverse processes of the first four cervical vertebrae (C1-C4) and inserts onto the
superomedial border of the scapula. The main function of the levator scapulae muscle is
to elevate the scapula.
This study aimed to determine the morphometric variation in levator scapulae muscle and
its related neurovasculature via cadaveric and MRI studies. There were 20 available
cadavers, and their posterior and anterior neck triangles were dissected to expose the
levator scapulae and its neurovasculature. The MRI study used randomly selected axial
scans (n = 167) to identify accessory attachments of the levator scapulae muscle.
The study observed the levator scapulae muscle with two to six muscle slips, with four
muscle slips dominating. The average proximal distance was 53.46 ± 13.22 mm, distal
distance was 60.63 ± 10.78 mm, anterior distance was 87.10 ± 9.27 mm and posterior
distance was 158.08 ± 15.94 mm. The cadaveric study observed the accessory muscle slip
attachments to the middle scalene, the first two ribs. The MRI study observed accessory
attachments to the serratus posterior superior, serratus anterior, trapezius, rhomboid
minor, and splenius cervicis. The levator scapulae muscle was supplied by the dorsal
scapular, transverse cervical ascending cervical arteries, and innervated by up to six nerve
branches, stemming from C2, C3/C4, and C5 nerve roots.
Clinically, the current study is important to medical students, anatomists, radiologists, and
physicians, as it confirmed the available data and provided additional knowledge about
the levator scapulae muscle and its related neurovasculature, hence voiding
misinterpretation of possible muscle anatomy, inaccurate diagnoses and prevent injuries
to neurovasculature during surgical procedures. Further research on the levator scapulae
muscle is crucial to provide adequate information regarding the levator scapulae muscle
variations
The nature of China’s relations with Africa: A comparative analysis of Sino-Botswana and Sino-Namibia relations
(University of Namibia, 2025) Nawases, Roseta M; Obinna, Richard
This study systematically analyses the nature of China’s relations with Africa from a
comparative perspective. It uses Sino-Botswana and Sino-Namibia relations as
specific case studies. The necessity of the comparative approach is to draw out
similarities and differences of factors that influence the nature of Sino- African
relations, with a specific focus on these two southern African states. The systematic
study is grounded in the constructivist theoretical paradigm. Constructivism claims
that core issues of international relations, national interests, security, identity, norms,
and ideas are socially constructed. The foregrounding of the study in constructivism
necessitated the adoption of the qualitative research methodology which allowed for a
comprehensive data collection, thus advancing the reliability and trustworthiness of
data and findings. Botswana and Namibia were found to share several commonalities
in terms of foreign policies and relations with China. The two southern African states
have established strong and effective foreign policy principles which guide their
engagement with other states in general, and with China in particular. Empirical
evidence emerging from this study suggests that both Botswana and Namibia are
driven by specific foreign policy principles. Despite these commonalities, the
dissimilarity of factors influences positive economic and political outcomes for
Botswana and Namibia in their ties with China.
Firstly, history plays a vital role in the relations between China and Namibia but plays
less role in the Sino- Botswana relations. The nature of the Sino-Namibian ties has
been constant since the 1950s and is driven by historical linkage, specifically China’s
role in Namibia’s liberation struggle. China was not largely involved in Botswana’s
struggle for independence. Therefore, Botswana’s relations with China are not largely
politically motivated but are economically determined. Secondly, results indicate that
a change in political leadership and governance architecture has not entirely influenced
the overall nature of relations China has with Namibia and Botswana. The principles
of the relationships remain unchanged, however, approaches to the relations differ
practically from one leader to another and these diverse foreign policy postures
essentially influence the nature of Chinese presence in Botswana and Namibia in
general and more so for Botswana. Also, stable and sustainable political leadership is
essential in the bilateral relations China shares with Botswana and Namibia.
iii
Thirdly, Developmental State behaviour is noted. It has been established that while
Botswana and Namibia are democratic developmental states, China is largely regarded
as an authoritarian developmental state. However, the extent to which the Botswana
and Namibian governments exert power and influence to achieve economic
development goals in their relations with China vary. Motivated by economic
determinism, Botswana exercises significant control and ownership of its natural
resources and the mining industry. Motivated by political considerations, Namibia’s
natural resources and the mining industry are largely owned by foreign entities, with
China particularly in full control of the uranium mines in the Namibian state.
Evidence which emerged from this comparative study suggests that patterns of the
Sino- African relations duplicate those of neo-colonialism or rather demonstrate a
“partially neo-colonising power”. The Asian state tends to take advantage of
weaknesses inherent in the political economic system of different African states, as
exemplified by Botswana and Namibia case studies. As a result of the historical past,
the form of international neo-patrimonialism comes into play, particularly in the case
of Namibia. The structure of the Forum of China -Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), in
which African states are meant to sign documents containing what China has already
decided to offer in terms of development to Africa, is brought forward. This happens
without due consultation with African states and the priorities of such offerings in
terms of Africa’s development agenda. This is indicative of a tendency of neo colonialism. The study suggests that for Namibia to benefit greatly from the relations
with China in terms of economic development, there is a need for a clear distinction
between political ties and economic ties, and a break from historic bondage
A training programme to support social workers in the facilitation of field education supervision
(University of Namibia, 2024) Nghipandulwa, Lovisa Kandali; Ananias, Janet
Supervision of social work interns is a mandatory specialised function that requires
additional skills and knowledge to be executed optimally. Little is known about the
experiences and needs of field supervisors within a Namibian context. This study
explored the needs, experiences, and current practices of student supervision amongst
the social workers and student social workers in the Khomas region of Namibia. The
outcomes of the exploration led to the development of an evidence-based intervention
programme to empower social workers in the field supervision role. This was an
intervention research, conducted in three phases. Phase one was a situational analysis
embedded in a qualitative approach and phenomenological design, and its data were
collected from purposively selected 20 social workers and 10 social work students,
using open-ended questions to conduct in-depth interviews. The data was analysed
using the Tesch method of qualitative data analysis. This was followed by the design
and development of a training programme in Phase Two, and programme evaluation
by experts in Phase Three. The main findingsreveal that field supervisorsreceived little
prior training in field supervision, are not fully aware of the supervisory functions
associated with studentsupervision, have challenges with the integration of theory into
practice, and that there are no comprehensive training programmes for field supervisors
in Namibia. These findings led to the development of a comprehensive training programme
and implementation guidelines , which became the outcome product of this study. The
programme was found to be viable and feasible by international and local social work
experts in student supervision. They assessed the programme’s feasibility and viability,
specifically focusing on adequacy of learning content, appropriateness of facilitation
methods and allocated times. They further made suggestions for improving the
programme. The experts expressed satisfaction with the programme content and
relevancy of topics and acknowledged its potential to put the social work field
education at the forefront. This study’s emerging knowledge is solidified through the
developed training programme, as well as description of unique experiences of field
supervisors and student social workers from a Namibian context. The study’s
recommendations underscore the importance of CPD and post-qualifying training in
field supervision, and that a supervision framework for Namibia need to be developed
urgently, to re-engineer field supervision processes. Future research could evaluate the
impact of the developed training programme on field supervisors’ competencies, both
from the field supervisors and student social workers’ perspective
Conservation of endangered species in Namibia: An investigation of factors contributing to the poaching of rhinos in the Etosha National Park
(University of Namibia, 2025) Moongela, Ephraim Auhamba; Shaanika, Theophilia
Rhino poaching remains a critical conservation and security challenge in Southern
Africa, threatening the survival of rhino populations and undermining conservation
efforts. While extensive research has been conducted on wildlife poaching at the
global and regional levels, there is a significant gap in understanding the specific socio economic, legal, and governance-related factors contributing to rhino poaching in the
Etosha National Park (ENP), Namibia. This study aimed to fill this gap by
investigating the key drivers of rhino poaching, assessing the weaknesses in existing
conservation measures, and proposing effective policy recommendations to mitigate
the crisis. The study was underpinned by Routine Activity Theory to explain the
motivations behind poaching and Environmental Governance Theory to frame the
effectiveness of conservation policies and law enforcement strategies. A qualitative
research strategy was employed, focusing on in-depth thematic analysis. The study
population comprised employees under the Directorate of Wildlife and National Parks
(DWNP) within the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT) as well
as business and middle-aged individuals residing within a 150 km radius of ENP. Non probability and snowball sampling techniques were used to identify key informants,
resulting in 18 in-depth interviews from an initial target of 20 respondents. The
findings reveal that economic desperation, high black-market prices for rhino horns,
corruption and bribing within law enforcement agencies, and the exploitation by
criminal syndicates are the primary factors driving poaching in ENP. Additionally,
weak law enforcement and legal loopholes enable persistent poaching, as inconsistent
penalties fail to deter offenders. The study further identified a lack of comprehensive
intelligence-sharing mechanisms among regional and international stakeholders,
which exacerbates the challenge of controlling the illicit wildlife trade. To mitigate
rhino poaching, the study recommends strengthening legislative frameworks to impose
harsher penalties, enhancing community-based conservation programs to provide
sustainable alternative livelihoods, and integrating advanced technology, including
drones, real-time GPS tracking, and CCTV surveillance, into anti-poaching strategies.
Furthermore, fostering international cooperation and intelligence-sharing can play a
crucial role in disrupting the supply chain of illicit wildlife products. This study
contributes to the existing body of knowledge by bridging the gap in localized research
on rhino poaching in Namibia, offering a multidisciplinary perspective that integrates
criminology, conservation science, and policy analysis
Workers’ experiences of COVID-19 challenges: A case study of Safari Court Hotel’s retrenched employees, Windhoek, Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2025) Tuvadimbwa, Mirjam Puye-Ipawa N; Nhemachena, Artwell
The repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic were felt not just as a worldwide health
issue, but also in Namibia's economy and employment rates. Various industries suffered
economically as a result of lockdown measures put in place to slow the spread of the virus.
The Namibian hospitality industry was one of the most impacted since it relies heavily on
foreign tourists; as a result, many workers in the hotel industry were laid off or had their
salary reduced. The study aimed to investigate and analyse the issues faced by workers
retrenched from the Safari Court hotel as a result of the COVID-19 outbreak, as well as
how their livelihoods altered as a result. Data was acquired through semi-structured
interviews with twenty individuals (15 retrenched workers and 5 relatives/friends of the
retrenched workers) using the qualitative research approach. Purposive sampling was used
to select the participants. Based on the findings of the survey, all workers had difficulties
as a result of retrenchment. Financial issues, health (including mental health), and
employment challenges were among the most significant challenges faced by workers.
Finally, the study recommends that the government and many companies should build
effective pandemic preparation strategies for the future
Reading material culture to construct a history of trade and self-governance between Oukwanyama and its neighbours in the nineteenth century (1801 – 1900)
(University of Namibia, 2025) Ilunga, Ndapewoshali Ndahafa; Gwasira, Goodman
For the Oukwanyama and other Kingdoms, the Berlin Conference (1884-1885)
resulted in restricted trade and movement within Kingdoms which were divided into
different colonial territories. This research attempted to identify and document the
items most traded between the Ovakwanyama and their neighbours and how trade
patterns changed during the nineteenth century; to evaluate and document how some
materials and cultural objects were valued as status symbols and whether this was
due to the skills needed for their manufacture, the rarity of the materials used or the
ritual significance of the material culture, to investigate and document the sources of
the items traded and finally, to establish and document the trade routes and the
evolution thereof. The examination of material culture sought to provide evidence of
regular interaction and trade between the communities. The research, which was
framed by the theories of Afrocentrism, Postcolonial Theory and Decoloniality, was
carried out using the qualitative research method while combining various research
instruments which included an analysis of archival documents, semi-structured
interviews and the examination of cultural objects. Although it is common to study
trade patterns and movements of tangible materials, which this research found to be
amongst others, copper, beads, shells and even people, this research also examined
the trade of intangible assets such as ideas, knowledge, and processes such as
smithing and jewellery-making. Finally, the prevalent trade items were contingent on
the specific period within the nineteenth century, colonial borders, regulations, and
accessibility, which influenced aspects such as the demands of the community, the
nature of items or concepts being traded, and the trade routes themselves
An investigation into women’s economic empowerment in the blue economy: A case study of Omankete seafood processors in Walvis Bay, Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2025) Fololindo, Tjova Raulinda; Nhemachena, Artwell
Namibia's fishing industry is the third largest contributor to gross domestic product
(GDP), accounting for approximately 20% of export earnings. Despite such stellar
numbers, women are still not sufficiently empowered to gain economic opportunities
in this industry due to a lack of knowledge and technical know-how and it being a
male-dominated sector, hence the gender disparities. This study explored the
opportunities and barriers to women’s economic empowerment in the fishing industry,
including how their economic empowerment is perceived by women employed by
Omankete Seafood Processors Pty (Ltd). The study contributes to the policy changes
in the fishing industry. The study was informed by the Women Empowerment
Framework (WEF), which aims to move towards gender equity and gender equality.
Moreover, the framework takes into consideration the four dimensions of women’s
empowerment, which are: women to access resources, exercise self-awareness,
mobilize their rights, and control their environment. The study made use of the
qualitative research methodology employing the case study approach. The data was
collected through semi-structured interviews, with a total of 28 participants (4 key
informants and 24 female factory workers) through purposive sampling. The data was
subjected to thematic analysis, from which it was determined that women do derive
opportunities and benefits from the fishing industry in the form of monetary
compensation and access to pension funds. Moreover, the study found that women are
hindered from actively participating in the industry due to certain job opportunities
only being available to men. Future studies will benefit from interviewing more fishing
companies and employees employed in auxiliary services. This research aimed to
examine opportunities for women’s economic empowerment in the Namibian fishing
industry and explore constraints to women’s economic empowerment in the fishing
industry. The research study further explored perceptions of the empowerment of
women in the fishing industry
The impact of consumer debt on financial sustainability of village councils in the Hardap region of Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2021) Titus, Julian; Chiripanhura, Blessing
The main purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of consumer debt on financial
sustainability of village councils in the Hardap Region namely: Gochas, Gibeon,
Kalkrand, Stampriet and Maltahohe Village Councils. The study adopted mixed methods
with both positivist and interpretivist paradigms. Both probability and non-probability
sampling methods were applied. Through stratified sampling, the researcher drew 70
respondents from the 96 employees of the 5 peri-urban councils and simple random
sampling technique was used to pick 25 residents from all the five village councils in the
Hardap Region. The total study sample for this study was made up of 100 participants.
The study adopted two sets of data collection instruments in the form of a questionnaire
with structured questions and an interview guide to collect quantitative and qualitative
data respectively. All qualitative data was analysed thematically and presented in narrative
fonn using direct quotations from respondents. Quantitative data was analysed using
descriptive statistics and presented in the form of tables. The results revealed that
government grants, consumer debt and borrowed funds have a direct impact on the
financial sustainability measured in terms of surplus/deficit. Hence, village councils
should come up with financial strategies or policies aimed at enhancing the income
generating capacity of these non-profit organisations and which will at the same time
maintain the overall operational expenditure at its lowest possible levels
An analysis of the factors that influence Namibian individual taxpayers to participate in tax amnesty programs
(University of Namibia, 2025) Shilongo, Victorina Nandjila; Wealth, Eukeria
This quantitative study analysed the factors influencing Namibian individual
taxpayers’ decisions to participate in Namibia's tax amnesty programs. The study
aimed to address the persistent challenge of low tax compliance in Namibia,
particularly in the context of non-compliance among individual taxpayers. Using
primary data from a sample of 375 respondents, the research investigated the effects
of demographic variables (age, income level, occupation, and gender), tax knowledge,
understanding, perceived fairness, transparency, awareness, and perceived tax benefits
on participation in the tax amnesty program. In this study, Structural Equation
Modelling technique namely "Partial Least Squares" referred as SEM-PLS was
selected to test the presented hypotheses and relationships between these variables.
Namibian taxpayers’ participation in tax amnesties is influenced by income levels, tax
knowledge and fairness, while their age and gender are not associated with this
decision. Peculiar to Namibian individual taxpayers, age and gender are not important
factors in influencing compliance or tax amnesty participation. The results highlighted
the importance of occupation particularly for self-employed taxpayers and showed that
perceived transparency held greater relevance in Namibia than in similar studies
conducted elsewhere. These results illustrate the special compliance problems of self employed taxpayers in emerging economies. The findings expand the tax compliance
literature and considerations for improving the success of amnesty programs
Assessment of the thermal and energy performance of Photovoltaic modules in Agrivoltaics systems
(University of Namibia, 2025) Mbalundu, Hertha Liina; Dobreva, Petja
The study evaluates the thermal and energy performance of photovoltaic modules in
an agrivoltaic system in Benin, west Africa. This was done by employing three sets of
heat transfer coefficients: Faiman, Benin, and Büren into the Faiman module temperature prediction model. The dataset for this study extends from April to July
2023, marked by high ambient temperatures exceeding 30℃. According to the
findings, the cooling effect was significant for the results of Büren coefficients, and
the agrivoltaic system generated up to 3.0% more energy than the non-agrivoltaic,
especially at higher module temperature ranges of 40 ℃ - 55 ℃. The Benin
coefficients demonstrated a moderate cooling effect, evidenced by a positive energy
yield difference of up to 1.0% in the month of May. However, the cooling effect
reduced in the hotter month of July resulting in a -1.0% energy difference between the
two systems. The Faiman coefficient, on the other hand, demonstrated no cooling
effect, as shown by consistently yielding negative energy differences, especially in
May (-1.0%).
The statistical analysis indicates that the Faiman coefficients provided a closer fit to
the actual Benin-derived temperatures (R2
: 0.99 and MAE: 0.54 ℃). Whereas the
results from the Büren coefficients showed the strongest cooling effect, achieving a
reduction in module temperatures of up to 4℃ relative to the non-agrivoltaic system.
The findings highlight the need for site-specific coefficient tuning to enhance the
accuracy and the reliability of the findings