Research Articles (LSD)

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Indigenous medicinal knowledge of the San people: The case of farm six, Northern Namibia
(SAGE, 2010) Dan, Vicky
The San are among the most marginalized people in Namibia. The San have often relied on indigenous knowledge for survival, particularly since access to resources has proved to be difficult. This study explores the use of indigenous knowledge by a particular San community living on Farm Six, located in the Mangetti West area north of Tsumeb. In particular, the study focuses on the use of indigenous knowledge with regard to traditional medicine. Apart from considerations of the commercial and legal issues concerning the exploitation of the devil’s claw and hoodia plant, little has been published about the medicinal properties of San remedies. The findings indicate that the community relies on indigenous knowledge as their main means of treating most illnesses. While the community believes traditional remedies are effective in treating several conditions, they have also turned to herbal treatments because of a lack of access to modern health care: the nearest clinic is over 50 km away, transport is scarce, and a Ministry of Health and Social Services outreach team has not visited the camp for over 2 years. However, it was impossible to establish the medical efficacy of most of these remedies as their properties and effects have not been studied in detail.
GPS collars in studies of cattle movement: Cases of northeast Namibia and north Finland
(2011) Polojarvi, Katja
The deployment of the US Global Positioning System can be seen as a mega-engineering project in itself. This GPS system consists of 24 satellites and has been operational since 1978; in 1984 the system has been open for civilian use. Spin off from this new technology has been a whole industry based upon GPS-navigation. This together with the advances in Geographical Information Systems (GIS) software has created industries based upon location based knowledge. We can give exact locations to any object, person or process on the surface of the earth, enabling us to produce real time spatial databases. How to incorporate traditional and indigenous knowledge into GIS-data is a fascinating problem. People’s memory of time and place is not exact, but there are markers in space and time which can be used to relate indigenous knowledge with more exact forms of data. Allowing for traditional forms of land use in a world dominated by other more advanced and intensive forms of land use is probably a very demanding task. There will be a need to integrate traditional knowledge with exact data on land use, wildlife, conservation, environment and management. This is definitely an important issue in engineering earth and the environment
A typology of benefit sharing arrangements for the governance of social-ecological systems in developing countries
(2012) Nkhata, Bimo Abraham; Mosimane, Alfons; Downsborough, Linda; Breen, Charles; Roux, Dirk J.
This study explores and interprets relevant literature to construct a typology of benefit sharing arrangements for the governance of social-ecological systems in developing countries. The typology comprises three generic categories of benefit sharing arrangements: collaborative, market-oriented, and egalitarian. We contend that the three categories provide a useful basis for exploring and classifying the different societal arrangements required for governance of social-ecological systems. The typology we present is founded on a related set of explicit assumptions that can be used to explore and better understand the linkages among ecosystem services, benefit sharing, and governance. Issues that are strongly related to sustainability in developing countries form the core basis of our assumptions. Our aim is not to write a definitive exposition, but to spark debate and engage ongoing dialogue on governance and benefit sharing in the field of social-ecological systems.
Engaging common property theory: Implications for benefit sharing research in developing countries
(Igitur, 2012) Nkhata, Bimo Abraham; Breen, Charles; Mosimane, Alfons
This article discusses the research relevance of benefit sharing and its implications for natural resource policy research in developing countries. It argues that the research challenge is how to improve understanding of benefit sharing policies by way of identifying the basic principles which underlie these policies. While benefit sharing is to a large extent context dependent, the central question we raise is whether we can identify a set of principles to enable one to describe, explain, understand and predict outcomes in relevant policy settings.
Using Benthic macro-invertebrates to assess ecological status of the Arbuga river in the, Sengiley Mountains, national park, Russia
(2016) Lewis, Earl W.
The objective of this study was to assess water quality of the Arbuga River in one of the National Parks in Russia, which is under severe stress from anthropogenic activities, using benthic macro-invertebrates as biological indicators. The study was carried out in 2012 and the findings were compared to an earlier study done in 2000. The indices used in the study to describe the invertebrate community species abundance were the Shannon-Weaver index and a density index (dominance). To assess the ecological status of the Arbuga River the Biotic Trent River Index was used. The results confirmed that the Arbuga River was in a moderately-polluted to critically polluted condition in some areas due to a range of anthropogenic impacts, at the time of the study. The health of the river had degraded from good to moderately-polluted since 2000 because of a range of anthropogenic factors.
Contemporary challenges facing the small farmers in the green scheme projects in Namibia
(2017) Shapi, Martin K.
The paper uses a combination of theory and both quantitative and qualitative evidence to demonstrate the significance and challenges of agricultural development in Namibian green scheme projects. For quantitative, a structured questionnaire to produce descriptive statistics was administered to 135 small farmers while eight (8) project manager who were interviewed at the studied schemes as key informant served as source of qualitative information that pin pointed out challenges and opportunities, faced by the small farmers in these schemes. The evidence points to the fact that although there are myriad of challenges, such as challenges related to production, access to efficient and effective market and access to credit faced by farmers, production and access to efficient and effect market challenges emerged as the most stumbling blocks to the optimal production and sales of small farmers’ produce. Usually access to agricultural credit is seen as one of the major challenges of smallholder farmers in Africa. In this study access to agricultural credit was less seen as a major stumbling block to the smallholder farmers’ productivity. This is attributed to the current farmers’ agricultural credit support scheme in place between Agricultural Bank of Namibia (Agribank) and the government of Namibia.
Teachers views on the implementation of the English language proficiency programme in Namibia
(2017) Ngololo, Elizabeth Ndeukumwa; Nekongo-Nielsen, Haaveshe
The study explores teachers’ views on the impact of the English Language Proficiency Programme in Namibian schools that was implemented over a period of five years, from 2011 to 2015. The program aimed at improving teachers’ proficiency in English. The summative evaluation was conducted in 2016 in the following five (5) regions: Erongo, Hardap, Khomas, Ohangwena and Omusati, selected on the basis of the level of participation and accessibility. The evaluation focused on the following aspects of the project: program development, program implementation and administration as well as assessment of learning outcomes. The study followed a qualitative approach using document analysis to inform the development of evaluation instruments and a phenomenological design to assess teachers’ lived experiences during program implementation. Data was collected through focus group discussions among teachers. The study established that teachers did not appreciate the program as it was ill-planned, irrelevant to their needs and disturbed their daily routines. Nevertheless, a few teachers embraced the program and reported positive benefits in terms of teachers’ career development goals. The study recommends the revision of the program in terms of content and implementation procedures. In addition, teachers’ support systems, learning materials and the mode of delivery need improvement to effectively enhance teaching and learning in Namibian schools.
Towards the reduction of vulnerabilities and risks of climate change in the community-based tourism, Namibia
(2018) Lendelvo, Selma M
Abstract Climate change is one of the contemporary issues in the world that has proven to have a direct impact on the development of different nations. Community-based tourism has been identified as a potential contributor to household security. In this chapter, the analyses were derived from regional consultations in the two regions with community members, traditional leaders, and key stakeholders. In Namibia and particularly Kunene and Zambezi regions, community-based tourism has expanded, providing employment to the residents of these communities. Similarly, there has been an increase in joint venture agreements between local communities and external investors in areas such as constructions of lodges, tented camps, and tour guiding. The community-based tourism sectors in the Zambezi region and Kunene region are prone to climatic hazards, in particular, frequent floods and prolonged drought. This chapter recommends inclusive climate change adaptive strategies that promote climate proof infrastructure for tourism establishment. An effective community-based tourism intervention for the Zambezi region is necessitated by well-informed and consultative planning and execution to reduce the effects of floods. For Kunene region, community-based tourism interventions should be aimed at addressing the risks resulting from drought. It should, therefore, prioritise sustainable water security and environmental management practices.
Perception of farmers on conservation agriculture for climate change adaptation in Namibia
(2018) Taapopi, M.; Kamwi, Jonathan M.; Siyambango, Nguza
Traditional cultivation methods in Namibia are characterised by cultivating the same type of crops persistently on the same piece of land, using a disc or mouldboard plough with minimal to no fertilizer application. This study assessed the knowledge level of farmers’ on conservation agriculture and the household factors, which influence farmers to take up conservation agriculture in the Omusati Region of Namibia. Both socioeconomic and biophysical data were collected through household face-to-face interviews from 40 households located in seven constituencies of the Omusati Region. The results showed that technological know-how, limited agricultural inputs and implements for conservation agriculture hindered the uptake of conservation agriculture. In addition, lack of crop residues for mulching purposes and little understanding of the importance of crop rotation were identified as barriers to practice conservation agriculture. Logistic regression analysis showed that age, gender, marital status, education level, crop field size and farming period did not significantly influence the adoption of conservation agriculture. The study indicates that there is a need to encourage the use of climate smart agriculture technologies such as conservation agriculture, which minimizes the negative impacts of dry spells in order to maximize crop production and increase farmers’ understanding on the principles of conservation agriculture. Thus, strategies and policies to reduce poverty need to consider local contexts, social norms and values. In this regard, engagement of local farmers and demonstration of the short and long-term benefits of conservation agricultural practices offer promising entry points.
Monitoring groundwater quality in a Namibian rural settlement
(2018) Lewis, Earl W.; Claasen, Tiffany
Drinking water in rural areas is often contaminated due to poor sanitation practices, which cause problems such as diarrhea, polio and cholera. Rural water quality is a critical issue in Namibia because a great deal of the population lives in rural settlements. The aim of this study was to assess the levels of nitrate and some microbial parameters in borehole waters in 8 rural settlements in Hardap, Namibia. The tests were conducted in 2016 and the results compared to tests on the same boreholes in 2011. Parameters were determined using standard procedures. Water infrastructure and sanitation practices were also examined. Water parameters were compared to NamWater safe water drinking guidelines. The results revealed that sanitation practices need to be improved to avoid health risks. High levels of nitrate and coliform bacteria were identified as the most threatening contaminants that were determined.Water quality has deteriorated in these settlements since 2011, when only two of the boreholes yielded water unfit for drinking. In 2016 the number of unfit boreholes had increased to four. Systematic monitoring of groundwater quality, workshops on public health and sanitation practices, and improved sanitation facilities are recommended.
Indigenous knowledge systems for local weather predictions: A case of Mukonchi chiefdom in Zambia
(2019) Mbewe, Mabvuto
The purpose of the study was to unravel constituents of the indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) and appreciate people’s experiences in predicting the weather in daily undertakings. The objectives of the study were; to identify factors or systems used, establish the knowledge used in predicting the weather and compare the indigenous and current scientific method of predicting the weather. Qualitative and quantitative research designs were used. Primary data was collected through semi structured, face-to-face and in-depth interviews. This was complemented by secondary data collected through desk reviews of relevant published materials. The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge systems have been employed by people of Mukonchi chiefdom since time immemorial. There has also been reliance on IKS to make decisions pertaining to livelihoods such as agricultural activities. However, IKS in the area remains undocumented. Observation of several occurrences in combination or singularly relating to plants, animals, insects, and astronomical events were factors of significant importance in the knowledge of weather extrapolation. Elements such as age, frequency of use of the IKS, and level of education were seen to be of momentous prominence in utilisation of the indigenous knowledge as modern means of weather forecasting which are applicable to the local community environment.
A perfect storm? The impact of COVID-19 on community-based conservation in Namibia
(Namibian Journal of Environment, 2020) Lendelvo, Selma M.
We report on a rapid survey of five communal-area conservancies in Namibia to understand initial impacts on community-based conservation of national and international policies for dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic. Namibia’s Community-Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) programme has been growing for over 30 years, with high economic reliance on tourism and conservation hunting. We review the interrelationships between COVID-19, CBNRM, tourism and hunting, and discuss our findings under eight interlocking themes: 1) disruption to management and regular operational processes of conservancies, including 2) effects on conservancy wildlife patrolling and monitoring; 3) losses of revenue and cash flow in conservancy business operations; 4) impacts on Joint-Venture Partnerships; 5) impacts on employment opportunities and local livelihoods; 6) effects on community development projects and social benefits, including 7) disruption to funded projects and programmes; and 8) lack of technical capacity regarding communication technologies and equipment. In our conclusion we discuss tensions between an assumption that normal business can or will be resumed, and calls for the COVID-19 pandemic to create an opportunity for global choices away from ‘business-as-normal’. It is too early to tell what mix of these perspectives will unfold. What is clear is that communal-area conservancies must derive benefits from conservation activities in their areas that are commensurate with their role as key actors in the conservation of Namibia’s valuable wildlife and landscapes.
The economic viability of emerging commercial farmers under the resettlement programme
(2020) Lendelvo, Selma M.; Shapi, Martin K.; Mapaure, Clever
Land reform programmes have been embarked upon by some African governments to address land inequalities after gaining independence from their colonial masters. Land redistribution to the land poor and from large-scale farmers to small-scale farmers is thus robust, both theoretically and empirically. The Government of the Republic of Namibia (GRN) committed to addressing the skewed land ownership that prevailed for over a century in the country by introducing land reform programmes after independence. The National Resettlement Policy, the Agricultural (Commercial) Land Reform Act (No. 6 of 1995) and the Communal Land Reform Act (No. 5 of 2002) are the key instruments that guide land reform in the country, particularly concerning the acquisition of farmland for redistribution purposes. Secure land tenure is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the socioeconomic development of any society. Historically, many Namibian people were dispossessed of their land to pave the way for the establishment of largescale commercial farms with freehold title for settlers. This practice resulted in many Namibians being confined to small-scale communal subsistence farming characterised by low returns and insecure land rights. The land redistribution programmes aimed at ensuring fair land distribution among all Namibians and the integration of previously disadvantaged Namibians into the mainstream of the country’s economy. The Affirmative Action Loan Scheme (AALS) provides subsidised loans to previously disadvantaged Namibians enabling them to 36 • “Neither here nor there”: Indigeneity, marginalisation and land rights in post-independence Namibia acquire commercial farms and engage in large-scale farming, while the National Resettlement Programme (NRP) targets small-scale commercial farmers. While recognising that secure land rights are not the panacea for all shortcomings in agricultural productivity, this paper seeks to document factors influencing the economic viability of the resettlement programme in Namibia. This is done by analysing the ability of leasehold agreements granted to resettlement beneficiaries by the Ministry of Land Reform (MLR) to attract investment and subsequently trigger agricultural productivity, as well as by establishing other promoters contributing to this throughput. It is found that there has been improved productivity at the resettlement farms, but that there is still a lot of room for improvement. The current interventions by the stakeholders involved in land reform therefore have to be buttressed by more innovative efforts and also by the cooperation of the farmers
No safety net in the face of climate change: The case of pastoralists in Kunene region, Namibia
(PLoS ONE, 2020) Inman, Emilia N
Over the past decade, pastoralists in Kunene Region, Namibia, have endured recurrent drought and flood events that have culminated in the loss of their primary form of livelihood– pastoralism. Most pastoralists are finding it difficult to sustain their livelihoods, and their communities have fallen into extreme poverty. Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) approaches are increasingly acknowledged as having the potential to enhance the adaptive capacity of vulnerable communities. The first step is to develop an understanding of how affected communities live, their perceptions of and how they respond to climate change and the biophysical impacts of climate change in their communities. This study aims to collect this information in order to explore the use of EbA to help pastoralists adapt to climate change. We examined an isolated pastoral Himba community, to understand their perceptions, experiences and understanding of climate change and its related impacts on their livelihoods. A nested mixed-methods approach using structured interviews was employed to address the study objectives. Interview results revealed that pastoralists lack scientific knowledge of climate change, and they have no access to climate change information. Though pastoralists have coping and adaptation approaches at the community level (such as making gardens, fishing, etc.), these have become ineffective as climatic uncertainty and change persist. Furthermore, pastoralists no longer get benefits from the environment, such as food and fodder. Despite this, there are currently no biodiversity interventions at the community level to address the impacts of climate change. Pastoralists have indicated their adaptation needs, particularly the provision of water supply to grow food. This is an open avenue to explore EbA approaches, specifically ecological restoration, while still addressing the need of the pastoralists. There is an urgent need to develop new practical adaptation strategies, including restoration options that will strengthen their adaptive capacity.
Flood impacts in Oshana region, Namibia: A case study of Cuvelai river basin
(Canadian Center of Science and Education, 2020) Niipare, Anna-Marie
Floods are among the global natural disasters that are known to have major negative societal effects. The extent of floods can determine the degree of impact to be made. Floods can cause extensive economic losses, consequently affecting livelihoods, businesses, infrastructures, and basic services. This study investigated the impact of floods in communities within the Oshana Region in the northern areas of Namibia. Primary and secondary data were collected in efforts to understand the impact of floods, and the causes of vulnerability to such events. Loss of field crops, destruction of houses, destruction of roads and other infrastructure, and loss of human lives was the major flood impacts that have been identified. The study findings revealed that vulnerability to floods is mainly due to lack of resources, poverty, poor infrastructure, limited budget, inactive disaster risk management structures in the region, rapid population change, non-existing Early Warning System (EWS), lack of awareness of the flood impacts, low income, and the fact that many houses are headed by females. In the absence of coping strategies, communities mainly depend on external relief, particularly for temporary shelter and the provision of basic needs. It was concluded that the ability of communities and individuals to cope with flood impacts is related to their culture, history, knowledge system, power dynamics and governance. A further conclusion was that the vulnerability of communities in the Oshana Region resulted in reduced household resilience to flood disasters. The study recommended a further investigation into other flood-prone regions in Namibia. Other notable recommendations included: • the availing of information on climate variability and best coping strategies in flood-prone communities, • flood hazards awareness, • developing and implementing mitigation measures for flood disasters, • development of a policy on the construction of houses in efforts to avoid flood risks, • and the development of information
Principals’ experiences in the implementation of the English language proficiency programme in Namibia
(2020) Nekongo-Nielsen, Haaveshe
to lack skills to supervise teachers in delivering instruction using the English language. Studies conducted elsewhere in the world found that effective school leadership is needed for the success of professional development programmes. The purpose of this paper is to explore principals’ lived experiences with regard to their roles in the implementation of the English Language Proficiency Programme (ELPP). Design/methodology/approach – This paper followed a qualitative inquiry with multiple case study designs to explore principals’ lived experiences during the implementation of the ELPP. Ten schools were selected for the analysis, two from each of the five regions. The schools were selected on the basis of remoteness, the total number of teachers who participated in the ELPP, school phases (i.e. primary and combined) and pre-test scores. Principals were interviewed using exploratory open-ended questions, and data analysis produced five categories under which the results were presented. Findings – The findings indicate that principals applied their individual logic to accommodate and implement the programme. They applied their individual productive leadership habitus to contextualise ELPP activities to ease their workload and appear corporative. Principals had significant influence on teacher learning and ensured successful implementation of a ministerial programme. Moreover, their leadership skills influenced the ways in which teachers received instruction and created a conducive learning environment. Owing to principals’ administrative, instructional and transformational leadership, many teachers participated and transcended upward and some were declared proficient in English. Research limitations/implications – This study research the effectiveness of leadership regarding English professional development programmes in achieving goals, explore power relations between school principals and education officials when developing and implementing professional development programmes and establish more efficient ways of providing a better leadership model for professional development programmes to achieve goals. Practical implications – This paper was limited to a few principals at rural schools in selected regions, therefore findings could not be generalised. Social implications – There is a need for creating opportunities for interactions among all stakeholders who are involved in the development and implementation of English proficiency programmes and to build power relations and work as a team to benefit schools. In order to enhance programme implementation and improve learning outcomes, there is also a need to provide feedback at intervals and find solutions to challenges as a team. Originality/value – Placing principals in situations without orientation triggered the need for specific leadership logic and particularities to be applied in a context for the success of the programme, which resulted in participation of more teachers in the ELPP. They applied their particularities and productive habitus through administrative, instructional and transformational leadership to enhance learning. Principals appointed English language teachers to instruct and mentor others, and consequently enabled some principals and teachers to exit the programme. Principals achieved these short wins upon realising that one has to cooperate with the authority to ensure achieving desired outcomes.
Communal land tenure security for widows in the Eenhana constituency of the Ohangwena region, Namibia
(Journal of International Women's Studies, 2020) Nakanyete, Ndapewa Fenny
Namibia is characterized by a history of discriminatory customary practices against women with regards to access to land, rights over land, and security of land tenure. Since independence in 1990, the country has adopted policies and legislative frameworks to bring about gender equality in all spheres of life, including the transformation of land tenure rights. These policies and acts give effect to the constitutional provisions that accord both men and women equal opportunities for access to land, rights over land and security of tenure. Widows are a particularly singled-out social group for legal protection, land security and rights to land enjoyed during their spouses’ lifetimes, and are granted protection, at least on paper, from discriminatory practices such as unlawful land evictions. This article evaluates and analyses the current status of land tenure security for widows in the Eenhana Constituency of the Ohangwena Region in Namibia. The study employed both quantitative and qualitative methods through questionnaires, interviews and focus group discussions with widows, as well as key informant interviews with Communal Land Board representatives, members of the traditional authorities, as well as the Ministry of Land Reform’s regional office officials. Through this case study, the findings establish that even though Namibia acclaims progressive policies and legislative frameworks on gender equality, there are still pockets of discrimination against widows where they continue to be at risk of losing their land rights in some of Namibia’s communal areas. Addressing the land tenure insecurities and a guarantee of legal land rights for widows is key to reducing vulnerabilities within female-headed households in the communal areas. Traditional authorities remain a key governance structure in communal areas, particularly in relation to access to land, and land rights inheritance issues, amongst others. Similarly, the Communal Land Boards are statutory institutions mandated to ensure implementation of the provisions of the Communal Land Reform Act of 2002, including the protection of land rights for widows. The study, therefore, recommends three main measures: the removal of all forms of discriminatory customary practices against widows; continued awareness-raising initiatives on the rights of widows; and full implementation of legal provisions for the protection of widows’ land rights and security of tenure.
Current vegetation structure and composition of woody species in community-derived categories of land degradation in a semiarid rangeland in Kunene region, Namibia
(Wiley, 2020) Inman, Emilia N.
Land degradation has put the world's rangelands under intense pressure and reduced their capacity to provide vital services to those who solely depend on them for survival. With the current pressures on rangelands, worldwide, there is an urgent need to survey the present condition of rangelands. Such detailed surveys can identify where improvement programmes can be emphasised; whether it be reseeding, stock control, sociological restraints or other actions. To combat rangeland degradation, management systems are more effective when they account for community perceptions and practices. This study aims to assess the current status of woody plants in different categories of degradation as perceived by herders in Kunene, Namibia. Furthermore, we wished to compare the perception of degradation by herders with the measured ecological condition. With the help of herders, sites representing different categories of degradation (low, moderate, high and protected) were identified and 10 plots of 400m2 each were established in each category. Species diversity, density, basal area and regeneration of woody plants increased sequentially along the degradation gradient (high to low). Vegetation attributes such as species diversity, seedling density and standing basal area increased with increasing distances from the villages. Although the herders' perception of degradation, for high and moderate degradation, matches the ecological results, the low degradation sites show signs of bush encroachment, a type of degradation that the herders did not perceive as degradation. Colophospermum mopane, a known encroacher species across Namibia, was the dominant species in the moderate and low degradation sites. Pechuel-loeschea leubnitziae, which is also known to be an indicator of degradation, was the dominant species in the high degradation sites. The findings highlight the present and future threats the study area is facing and form the basis for current restoration research.
Developing a contamination susceptibility index for the Goreangab dam in Namibia
(Elsevier, 2020) Deolfa, Jose M.
The convenience and quality of life provided by dams is highly dependent on the quality of the retained water. Human intervention plays an important role in defining the quality of the retained water as expanding human populations have a large impact on the surrounding environment and the, quality of impounded water. The types and extent of human activities taking place in and around the dam will generally have an effect on the unique physical and chemical properties of water within the reservoir, thereby affecting the biodiversity and related functions thereof. Therefore, the need for comprehensive water quality assessment and reporting tools including contamination susceptibility indices cannot be overemphasized. The study thus aimed at developing a contamination susceptibility index for the Goreangab dam by evaluating the effects of anthropogenic activities on surface water quality through the analysis of the physico-chemical properties of the water column and sediments, an aquatic invertebrate evaluation and pollution risk assessment, using the Pollution Load and the wastewater presence, recreational impact, agricultural impact, size of the watershed, transportation avenues, industrial impact and vegetative ground cover, (WRASTIC) indices. Analytical experimental studies were used as references to methods employed in this research. Water, aquatic invertebrates and sediment samples were collected from 6 sampling sites, selected on the basis of their exposure to anthropogenic activity. The quality parameters investigated included dissolved oxygen, pH, total dissolved solids, chemical oxygen demand, temperature, electric conductivity and select heavy metals Pb, As, Fe, Zn, and Hg. Water and sediment samples were analysed using the Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) methods respectively. These were compared to the allowable limits stipulated in the Namibian Water Act (Act No. 54 of 1956). With the exception of TDS, Electric Conductivity and COD all other physical parameters recorded levels below the national set standard. Metal composition in the water column were all below the allowable limits, decreasing in the order Fe > Zn > Hg > Cd > As > Pb. The sampling stations upstream recorded higher average concentrations of metals in comparison to the downstream areas. The Pollution Load Index (PLI) results indicated deteriorating quality of soil sediments for all sampling stations, with higher deterioration upstream as these areas were privy to sewage and wastewater effluent. The aquatic invertebrate inventory and identification results categorised upstream Goreangab dam as a seriously modified habitat with very poor water quality whereas the downstream areas were found to be moderately modified. The average heavy metal concentrations were found to be below allowable limits for most of the sampling sites. Based on bio-monitoring and soil analyses results, there was indication of poor and deteriorating water quality at all sampling sites. The WRASTIC index indicated that the watershed was at high risk of contamination with a score of 51 and also identified five (5) of the sampling stations as risky areas serving as entry points for pollutants into the dam. The WRASTIC score is subject to a 3-year waver, indicating that the dam will be at a higher risk sooner as activity around the watershed continues to increase. The overall study results suggest that anthropogenic activity is a major factor in the contamination of the watershed and contributes greatly to its vulnerability. Regular screening of the Goreangab dam for sources of pollution will need to take place, along with continuous quality monitoring and assessment for the successful protection and restoration of the dam.
Effects of climatic variability and non-climatic factors on mopane worms’ (Gonimbrasia Belina) distribution and livelihood options in North Central Namibia
(Canadian Center of Science and Education, 2020) Togarepi, Cecil
With these factors in mind, this study sought to identify the extent to which the availability and distribution of mopane worms are influenced in the Tsandi and Okahao constituencies. The study used structured questionnaires to collect information from households in the study area, to interview key informants, and to carry out group discussions. A total of 70 households and 6 key informants were interviewed, along with 4 focus group discussions that were carried out to elicit perceptions, and to obtain views on the availability of mopane worms, and possible causes of the decline in the study area. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, while GIS was used to determine trends in vegetation cover, temperature and rainfall in the area. The rainfall trend indicates variability, with a generally declining trend. A slight increase in temperature has been observed too. Vegetation showed a browning trend in the study area, indicating declining habitats of mopane worms. The results have indicated that more women depend on mopane worms for survival, mainly as a source of income. Thus the decline in their availability greatly affects their food sources and their income diversification opportunities. Trading was found to be an important form of employment for the unemployed rural people, but with the potential to generate higher income levels that can improve their livelihoods. Moreover, despite the climatic factors, human activities seemed to indicate a greater influence on the availability of mopane worms, due to activities such as overharvesting, land clearing for agriculture and household use/fencing. Thus, there is a greater need to control the harvesting of mopane worms and to control tree-cutting activities in order to reduce the impacts of climatic and non-climatic factors on their availability.

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