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Item Radionuclide analysis of soil samples taken from Outjo, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2020) Hanga, Lusina Venomufenu; Oyedele, James A.Naturally occurring radionuclides such as Uranium (238U), Thorium (232Th) and Potassium (40K), exist in the soil where they continuously disintegrate and emit ionising radiation which could pose health hazards to the inhabitants of a given location if the concentrations of the radionuclides are very high. In this work, the concentrations of the radionuclides 238U, 232Th and 40K in the soil samples taken from Outjo have been studied by gamma spectrometry. The town of Outjo was divided into ten geographical areas and five samples were collected across each area. These samples were dried under laboratory temperature, passed through a 2 mm mesh screen and sealed in 500 ml polythene bottles. The samples were analysed using a liquid nitrogen cooled High Purity Germanium (HPGe) detector (by Canberra). The Python Code was used to calculate the activity concentrations of- and Hazard indices due to- the radionuclides 238U, 232Th and 40K from the intensities of the gamma lines emitted. The results obtained show that the concentrations of radionuclides in the soils of the town of Outjo vary from 11. 7 ± 1.6 to 29. 8 ± 2.0 Bq kg-1 with an average of 20.5 ± 3.5 Bq kg-1 for 238U, 15.2 ± 1.8 to 58.3 ± 4.2 Bq kg-1 with an average of 31.4 ± 8.9 Bq kg-1 for 232Th and 206.2 ± 12.9 to 819.6 ± 31.9 Bq kg-1 with an average of 350.6 ± 124.6 Bq kg-1 for 40K. The average concentrations for 238U and 40K are lower than the worldwide averages of 35.0 Bq kg-1 and 400.0 Bq kg-1 respectively. In contrast, the average concentration for 232Th is slightly higher than the worldwide average of 30.0 Bq kg-1 . The average outdoor air absorbed dose rate due to terrestrial gamma rays at 1m above the ground was found to be 43.0 ± 10.6 nGyh-1 which is below the worldwide average value of 58.0 nGyh-1 . Also, the corresponding average effective dose was found to be 0.05 ± 0.01 mSvy-1 which is below the maximum permissible limit of 1.0 mSvy-1 . iii These results imply that the background radiation in the town is not high. The average values of Raeq and Hex are 92.4 ± 22.5 Bq kg-1 and 0.25 ± 0.06 which are below the recommended maximum limit of 370.0 Bq kg-1 and 1 respectively. Furthermore, the average values obtained for the other hazard parameters are all below the recommended maximum values, thus confirming that the town have normal background radiation so that radiation hazard is negligible in the town. All the results obtained in this study will contribute to the national baseline data of activity concentrations of radionuclides in the soils of NamibiaItem Geological mapping, petrological characterisation and geochemistry of rocks in the Aus area, Southern Namibia: Implications for potential Copper mineralization(University of Namibia, 2020) Mutongolume, ClaudiaThe study area is located in the southern part of Namibia within the Aus Domain which forms part of the Mesoproterozoic Namaqua Sector of the Namaqua-Natal Metamorphic Province. The sector hosts some significant base metal sulphide deposits that have been mined for the past century. In this study, detailed field mapping, petrography, geochemistry and U-Pb zircon dating were conducted to evaluate the chemical characteristics and tectonic setting of the area with the intent to assess the feasibility and potential of known copper occurrences around Aus area. The Garub Group represents the oldest rocks in the area and comprises marble, calc-silicates, metapelites, garnet biotite quartz gneisses, amphibolites, mafic granulites and serpentinites, which have been intruded by several, variably deformed granites. The Aus, Tsirub and Kubub orthogneisses are the main intrusives in the area. However, field mapping identified a highly fractured and metasomatized K-feldspar plagioclase epidote rock which requires further investigation. Petrographic studies confirm the compositional and deformational variability observed in the field. Geochemistry reveals that all granitoids within the study area are acidic, strongly peraluminous and products of shoshonitic and high-K calcalkaline magma derived from an A-type source. The A-type granites formed as a result of crustal contamination during the continental extensional phase and have been subjected to compressional deformation. Chondrite-normalised spider diagrams show negative Ta, Nb, P and Ti anomalies, with enrichments in Th and LREE, which suggest that the rocks are derived from an arc environment. Plots of K2O vs SiO2 show a considerably greater degree of scatter, which may be attributed to the effects of crustal contamination. Three geotectonic settings are established, i. e. the syn-collisional-Granite (syn-COLG), Volcanic Arc Granites (VAG) and Within Plate Granites (WPG). These inconsistent plots of samples may be attributed to hydrothermal alteration and/or sharing of varying degrees of fractionation within multiple flows, and support a collision of crustal fragments model. Granitoid plutonism for Tsirub augen gneiss and Aus granite gneiss occurred at 1110 ± 7 Ma and 1085 ± 36 Ma respectively. Several granites, which could be responsible for hydrothermal activity, quartz veins, fault structures and occurrence of malachite may bear evidence for copper mineralization in the study area.Item The impact of applying high grade domaining as a method of dealing with Gold outliers in Otjikoto mine grade control modelling system, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2020) Shikongo, Job NatangweB2Gold Otjikoto open pit mine is located in the Northern Zone of the Pan African Neoproterozoic Damara Orogenic Belt. The ore is open ended at depth and the mine is considering underground mining in the near future. The orebody depicts gold grade zonation, with the highest grades hosted in the cores of the ore shoots within the shorter limbs and hinges of the intrafolial folds in distinctive en-enchelon veins, whilst the lower grades make up the peripherals of the ore shoots. Approximately 70% of the total gold reserve in the deposit appears as free gold. Nugget effect is the variability seen between samples that are closely spaced. The orebody variogram modeling shows a high nugget effect of 0.64, and a longest range of 74 m in the 200˚ direction at 15˚ plunge. The grade control geologists are therefore dealing with high risk of resource overestimation due to the high nugget effect. The 200˚ direction is also the direction of high continuity, which represents the plunging direction of the orebody. The High Grade Capping (HGC) method currently used during grade control resource modelling at B2Gold Otjikoto mine is associated with undue reduction in the estimated grades. Grade reconciliation at B2Gold Otjikoto mine, has consistently shown a grade underestimation by the Grade Control model against the plant processed feed grade. Therefore, the study evaluated the impact of employing High Grade Domaining (HGD) method at the mine. Two ordinary kriging grade block models were populated using both methods. The results were evaluated to quantify the impact of the two methods on the grade estimates. The result shows a 3% increase in the overall grade of the HGD model ore material compared to the HGC model ore material. Both models estimated similar grade and tonnage in ore material from lower grade zones, howerver, significant variations in the grades and tonnage occurs between the models in ore material in the in grade categories above 4.5 g/t Au cutoff. The study recommends employing the HGD method in resource modelling for mining in the high grade zones.Item Seismic stratigraphy and burial history for source and reservour prediction in the Luderitz basin, license blocks 2412B and 2413B, offshore Namibia(University of Namibia, 2020) Joseph, ReginaldaThe Lüderitz Basin is one of the four Namibia’s offshore basins on the western African passive margin that evolved during continental break-up and subsequent opening of the South Atlantic during the late Jurassic and Cretaceous. It is considered as a hydrocarbon frontier that is largely under-explored with only one well (2513/8-1) drilled since the wake of hydrocarbon exploration along the Namibian offshore in the 1990s. Selected lines of the GPN13 2D seismic dataset on blocks 2412B/2413B and well 2513/8-1 were used to predict lithofacies in the basin based on seismic stratigraphic interpretation. A Wheeler diagram was constructed to obtain better insight into the time relationships of the depositional systems, and their relationships to surfaces of non-deposition, condensation and erosion. In addition, two model well locations were selected in the basin, one on the shelf and the other at the base of slope. The Cretaceous and Tertiary succession was divided into 19 Seismic Intervals (SI) based on the recognition of 11 seismic stratigraphic surface. As no direct well tie calibration could be carried out the assigning of stratigraphic ages required comparison of the GPN13 lines with interpretations from neigbouring areas contained in previously studies. Lithofacies were predicted based on seismic facies, system tracts, and analogue interpretations presented in publications on studies of neighboring areas. The lithology model proposes the presence of several source, reservoir and seal rock units in both, the syn-rift and post-rift succesions of the study area. The modelled thermal history suggests that potential Lower Cretaceous source rocks may have generated petroleum only at locations of thick overburden, such as the base of slope location.Item Re-evaluation of Kombat-style mineralisation and implications for exploration in the Otavi mountainland, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2020) Nghoongoloka, AbnerThis study re-evaluates the Cu-Pb and Fe-Mn ore mineralization of the Kombat Mine (ML-16, ML-73B) and Gross Otavi Mine (ML-73C), situated between 19 ̊41’ 30” S, 19̊ 39’ 00” S and 17 ̊40’ 00” E, 17 ̊35’ 00” E (WGS84) based on the field geology, fluid inclusions, petrology, mineralogy and geochemistry. This was to determine the genetic relationship between Fe-Mn and Cu-Pb mineralization. The study has established that the Cu-Pb ore at the Kombat Mine can be classified as an MVT-type deposit, whereas, the Fe-Mn ore can be classified as a stratiform-syn-sedimentary deposit. The formation of the MVT-type deposit is associated with a hydrothermal fluid system with a mean temperature of 183°C and mean salinity of 12.85 NaCl wt. % equivalent, as determined by fluid inclusion studies. Upward brine migration enabled leaching of metals from underlying sediments and precipitation of Cu-Pb ore at upper levels in the carbonate host rocks due to structural traps and chemical interaction. The syn-sedimentary Fe-Mn ore, which is largely associated with calc-silicate lithologies, consists mainly of magnetite and hematite with minor pyrite, hausmannite and jacobsite, was deposited by diagenetic and hydrogenetic processes under changing oxic and anoxic conditions within the sedimentary basin. Acceptable geochemical exploration indicators of the existing mineralization include anomalous values of 0.5% Cu, 0.2% S, 0.05% Pb, 0.03% As; 0.01% Zn; V, W, Mo and Ag is 0.002% each based on portable XRF sample analysis. Mineralogical indicators based on field observations, optical and XRD prospecting include major ore minerals such as chalcopyrite, bornite, covellite, and galena with minor chalcocite, sphalerite, and pyrobelonite, for the Cu-Pb MVT-type ores. For the Fe-Mn ores, hausmannite, hematite with minor, manganite may be are considered.Item Geochemical and mineralogical characterisation of the INCA Uranium mineralisation in the central zone of the Damara Belt, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2020) Muyongo, ApharyThe Inca uranium deposit is situated about 40 km east of the town Swakopmund in the central Namib Desert within the Erongo region, in western Namibia. It is located within the uranium-endowed Central Zone of the Pan African Damara orogenic belt. The deposit is hosted in amphibolite facies grade metasedimentary rocks of the Lower Swakop Group of the Damara Supergoup. Characterisation of mineralogical and geochemical features of the Inca uranium mineralisation has been conducted to enhance the understanding of formation processes of the deposit. The objectives of the study were to characterise the occurrence of uranium mineralisation and to establish a genetic model of the deposit. This quantitative study has been conducted through whole-rock major and trace element geochemical analytical methods comprising ICP-OES and ICP-MS; and XRD method for mineral identification; as well as scanning electron microscopy and optical petrographic examination of selected drill core samples from three selected boreholes. Major element abundances of most samples are characterised by anomalous silica and iron oxides related to metamorphic and magmatic-hydrothermal alterations. Trace element abundances of some samples such as S, Pb, and Zn depict positive correlation with uranium mineralisation and is postulated to simultaneous and successive distinct processes. REE and uranium enrichment correlation particularly associated with magnetite skarn rocks suggests mobility of REE during hydrothermal uranium mineralisation. Uranium mineralisation is essentially made up of interstitially disseminated euhedral to subeuhedral primary uraninite and secondary, hydrothermal, massive to semi-massive and botryoidal coffinite occurring as fracture infills, veinlets and coatings around grain boundaries of gangue mineral assemblages of host metasedimentary and leucogranite rocks. Uraninite is intimately related to prograde metamorphic assemblages and magnetite skarn rock. Coffinite is derived from partial dissolution of uraninite under hydrothermal conditions and is associated with sulphide and REE mineralisation as fracture infills and along grain boundaries of host mineral assemblages of the iron skarn and calc-silicate rocks as well as leucogranites. Pervasive fracturing associated with secondary mineralisation suggests that fractures facilitated the remobilization of metals and served both as conduit for fluid transport and as deposition sites. The magnetite skarn rock served as a redox boundary for metal rich circulating hydrothermal fluids and triggered precipitation of uranium mineralisation and associated ore minerals such as galena, and xenotime. Botryoidal coffinite mineralisation together with opal and aragonite appear to be associated with late meteoric fluids under hydrothermal conditions. Partial oxidation of magnetite to hematite is suggested to be related to this later event. Further research work in mineral geochemistry, U-Pb geochronology and stable isotope is recommended to advance the understanding of the evolution and quantification of the ore forming processes involved in the formation of the Inca U deposit.Item Assessment of potentially harmful arsenic, cadmium, cobalt and lead in soils and plants in Nomtsoub suburb, Tsumeb town(University of Namibia, 2020) Sibeso, Phrisco MinsoziA number of environmental studies previously conducted in the Tsumeb Mining district analysed total metal concentrations in soils and vegetation; with results showing high concentrations of heavy metals such as arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead and zinc which exceed international guidelines for different land uses. However, the actual concentrations of only potentially harmful species for each element were not ascertained. This study aimed at determining the concentrations of potentially harmful As3+, Cd2+, Co2+, and Pb2+ in soil in the Nomtsoub suburb of the Tsumeb Town as well as determining the uptake of the potentially harmful heavy metals from soil to vegetation. The research project involved sampling of soils and vegetation in residential complexes and school grounds in the Nomtsoub suburb and surroundings which has a population of approximately 2000 people. Thirty (30) surface soil samples (0-5 cm depth) were sampled. Twenty (20) vegetation samples consisting of: Mango leaves, lemon leaves, sunflower leaves, fresh and dried papaya leaves, marula fruit, marula tree bark, fig leaves and fig fruit were collected due to their availability at the time of sampling as well as their prevalent local use. Control samples were collected from Lake Otjikoto and Farm Manheim some 15 km and 25 km from Tsumeb respectively. Sequential extraction and Aqua regia were used in extraction of the following targeted species: As3+, Cd2+, Co2+, and Pb2+. The samples were analysed using ICP-MS and ICP-OES at the Bureau Veritas laboratory in Vancouver, Canada. Analytical results of harmful heavy metals of soils in this study revealed moderate to high concentrations in mg/kg as follows: As3+, (7 to 421), Cd 2+ (0.5 to 35.6), Co2+ (2 to 6.3) and Pb2+ (25. 9 to 3786. 9). These results exceeded levels found naturally in the geosphere. When compared to Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for agricultural and residential land use, results of soil samples in this study exceeded As, Cd and Pb guideline values for both land uses. None of the soil samples in the study exceeded guideline values for cobalt for both residential and agricultural land uses. The minimum and maximum concentrations of bioavailable, potentially harmful heavy metals in soils in the current study are lower than those obtained in the previous studies which assessed total element concentrations. Bioaccumulations of harmful heavy metals in vegetation were as follows: (in mg/kg): As3+ (5.4 to 247), Cd 2+ (0.3 to 23.77), Co2+ (0.2 to 2.6) and Pb2+ (8.43 to 801. 67). WHO and EU limits of heavy metals in vegetation were exceeded for As, Cd and Pb. Co exceeded concentrations naturally found in vegetation. When uptake ratios were calculated for the various potentially harmful elements, arsenic uptake from soil to vegetation was the highest at 96%. Uptake of cadmium and cobalt was moderate to high (12. 4 to 66. 8% and 3.6% to 53. 8% respectively). Lead had the lowest uptake (3.9 and 41. 8 %.). The presence of potentially harmful heavy metals in the soil and vegetation/ plants in the study area poses a considerable health threat to the Tsumeb Community including threats to the gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal, immune, and reproductive and central nervous systems of human beings. The study recommended in-depth research on harmful element transfer from soils to vegetation, translocation mechanisms in vegetation as well as biomonitoring of heavy metals in people living in Tsumeb to ascertain risk levels and facilitate development of appropriate risk reduction and consequence mitigation measures if necessary.Item The geology, petrography, geochemistry and uranium ore mineralogy of the Namibplaas sheeted leucogranites, Damaran orogen, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2017) Shilongo, EmmanuelThis research study focused on the previously unknown uranium mineralisation hosted in garnet and magnetite bearing sheeted leucogranites (SLG's) I alaskites at Namibplaas. The various SLG's were distinguished and characterised by means of field, petrographic and geochemical studies into B, C and D-types based on the classification scheme ofNex and Kinnaird (1995) in the Goanikontes area. In addition, the stratigraphic positions of the SLG' s were established. The research techniques applied in the study included review of historical data, ground mapping, diamond drill core logging and sample preparation, thin section preparation, geochemical analyses and uranium ore mineralogical investigation. At Namibplaas, the Damaran sequence is most complete; the B-types are least abundant and are localised to the Kuiseb Formation, the C-types are most abundant and intrude the whole stratigraphic sequence. The D-types are emplaced within the Karibib, Chuos, Rossing and Khan Formations and at the Khan-Rossing-Chuos-Karibib Formation boundaries. The B and C- types are post D1- D2 but pre D3 deformation and are barren in uranium. D-types are post D1- D2- D3 deformation, these are uranium enriched and cross-cut the B and C-types making them the youngest of the intrusives. The sheeted leucogranites at both Goanik:ontes and at N arnibplaas have undergone similar structural events. But there is however a difference in accessory mineralogy and U & Th geochemistry. The D-types at Namibplaas bear garnet and magnetite. The occurrence of these accessory minerals can be explained as a result of host stratigraphic - assimilation. Individual sheeted leucogranite types are discemable from each other by a number of major, trace and rare earth element discrimination plots. Uranium and thorium and U/Th ratio distinguishes and characterises the Namibplaas sheeted leucogranites very well. The D-type contain the highest concentrations of uranium (22.5ppm to 1020ppm) with a U/Th ratio > 1. The C-type sheeted leucogranites show the highest thorium concentrations (10ppm to 301ppm) with a U/Th ratio < 1. The B-type sheeted leucogranites have lower concentrations of uranium (3ppm to 9ppm) and thorium (Sppm to 17.5ppm) The late- to post- orogenic conformable and transgressive sheeted leucogranitic bodies range in composition from tonalite to syenogranite. The Namibplaas leucogranites are peraluminous to metaluminous indicating a highly evolved crustal source most probably the Abbabis basement gneisses. Partial melting of the Abbabis basement gneisses which was induced by M2 resulted in the B and C-type leucogranites. Continued partial melting of the Abbabis basement gneisses during M3 resulted into the more uranium enriched D-type leucogranites. QEMSCAN investigation shows that uranium phases present in the D-type sheeted leucogranites are U-oxides as uraninite, U-Ti-oxides as betafite and Th(U)-silicates as uranothorite. The Namibplaas uranium propect is typically a low grade high tonnage deposit with a resource in the measured category; 25 Mt at an average grade of 206 ppm U30s at a cut-off grade of 160 ppm. The project may not be economically viable under the current global uranium price; however, the project may become viable if the global uranium price doubles in the near future. Further work which can be carried out at Namibplaas may include age dating of the leucogranites in order to establish the sequence of formation of the various leucogranites as well as fluid inclusion studies to determine the pressure and temperature regime, types and compositions of the ore forming fluids, as well as more detailed structural studies to better constrain the various deformation phases of the Damaran Orogen in relation to uranium mineralisation.Item Age dating of groundwater in perched aquifers Okongo area, Ohangwena region(University of Namibia, 2019) Masule, Nicco LibukuKnowledge of groundwater age / residence time in Okongo perched aquifer is important in understanding key issues in the evolution of groundwater, recharge rates, recharge mechanisms, resource renewability, flow rate and distribution of recharge areas. The build-up in the atmosphere of trace gases such as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and tritium (3H) from over a centenary ago offers a convenient way of dating groundwater up to the age of 60 years. These gases are well mixed in the atmosphere; therefore, their input functions help to provide information about groundwater age, distribution and recharge patterns. In this study, sulfur hexafluoride and tritium were used as an age dating tracer for shallow groundwater. The focus of the study was to understand how age dating of groundwater in a perched aquifer system can help to determine recharge dynamics, e.g. recharge rates, processes, and vulnerability of these aquifers to pollution. The study consequently contributes to the knowledge on shallow groundwater in respect to the effectiveness of age dating methods to determine age / residence time of groundwater in perched aquifers. The study’s objective was to determine the residence time, investigate the distribution of recharge and examine the origins of recharge to the perched aquifer using sulfur hexafluoride, tritium and hydrochemistry, stable isotopes (2H and 18O) methods. A total number of 26 groundwater samples were collected during two separate sampling seasons / campaigns namely in October 2016 (for tritium and stable isotopes testing) and April 2017 (sulfur hexafluoride, hydro-chemistry and stable isotope). Samples were then grouped into sub-sets of six samples (18O and 2H) and five sample sets (SF6, 3H) by method of analysis and by the six (6) sampling sites namely Omboloka 1 and 2, Ohameva, Okamanya, Oshanashiwa and Epumbalondjaba. The results on concentration of SF6 in the groundwater samples indicate that recharge to the perched aquifer happened in 2000 for Omboloka 2, with a groundwater age of 17 years; Ohameva in 2010 with an age of 7 years; Okamanya in 2012 with an age of 5 years; and Omboloka 1 and Oshanashiwa in 2016 with an age of 1 year. Epumbalondjaba borehole was not sampled during the sampling campaign due to the site being flooded. Applying a conservative mixing ratio model, the samples were observed to have a higher proportion of young water compared to old water. This proves that the groundwater in the perched aquifer is young with a short residence time. Furthermore, the tritium method used to calculate theoretic/hypothetic activities suggests that groundwaterat Ohameva, Okamanya, Omboloka 1 and Oshanashiwa, is sub-modern. While results for Epumbalondjaba and Omboloka 2 portray a mix of both sub-modern and modern water. The ionic composition of groundwater in the perched aquifer presents three groups of water types characterised by mixed zone water, Na+-K+-HCO3 and Ca2+-Mg2+-HCO3. The perched aquifer system is dominated by the Ca2+-Mg2+-HCO3 water type which is a result of the dissolution of calcrete and the formation of carbonate-rich rocks derived from recent recharge with short residence times. Stable isotopes show that groundwater in perched aquifer systems is enriched in heavy isotopes and has been subjected to evaporation, which is caused by the prevailing climatic and hydrological conditions in the area. This shows that groundwater recharge to the perched aquifer originate from the local catchment systems. Therefore, it is recommended that thetrace gases (sulfur hexafluoride and tritium) methods should be applied to a wide range of groundwater in the perched aquifers of the Okongo area in order to understand recharge areas better. It is necessary to further investigate the groundwater chemistry and isotopic composition of perched groundwater aquifer in more detail. It is further recommended that a long-term monitoring programme consisting of sampling stations for water levels, water quality and stable isotopes is established.Item The geochemistry and geochronology of the barby formation in the sinclair area, Southern Namibia(University of Namibia, 2018) Malobela, Theresia R.Volcanic and sedimentary rocks of the Sinclair Supergroup occur in the Konkiep Terrane of Southern Namibia. Three volcanic and sedimentary cycles are recognised. The Barby Formation belongs to the second cycle which consists of the Kunjas. Formation, Barby Formation and the Guperas Formation. In this work, the volcanic rocks of the Barby Formation, a key unit in the Sinclair area are described and dated. The coeval Spes Bona Syenite and the Tiras Granite are also described and dated. The rock types in the Barby Formation are rhyolites, basaltic trachyandesites, trachybasalts and trachydacites as well as volcanoclastic rocks. The rocks are largely undeformed and partly altered by deuteric processes and also mildly metamorphosed. Based on geochemistry of the rock samples and previous work, the bulk of rock types are calcalkaline although some alkaline rocks are present. U-Pb dating and Lu-Hf isotopic microbeam analyses were made on zircon and baddeleyite grains from four samples using cathodoluminescent images. A Barby rhomb porphyry sample gives an U-Pb baddeleyite age of 1217 ±2 Ma and a Barby felsic tuff has an 207Pb/206Pb zircon age of 1214 ±5 Ma. The Spes Bona Syenite which intrudes the Barby formation has a U-Pb baddeleyite age of 1217 ±3 Ma and an indistinguishable Rb-Sr biotite isochron age of 1238 ±20 Ma, showing that there was no regional metamorphic event. Subduction zone assemblages are generally made of high potassium basalts or calc-alkaline association. The Barby Formation records such assemblages. The Barby Formation reflects a subduction event which took place during the assembly of the Rodinia supercontinent. It is slightly younger at 1204 ±9 Ma and reflects the end of subduction-related volcanism due to the collision of Namaqua terranes with the Konkiep Terrane. The Spes Bona syenite and the Barby units have Lu-Hf crustal residence ages between 1682 and 1873 Ma suggesting the two units probably formed from a mixture of juvenile and older crustal material.Item The influence of groundwater management strategies on groundwater levels of Namibian savannah aquifers(University of Namibia, 2019) Nuunyango, Ester Mwadhina Ndahafa.Namibia has been known as water scarce, attributing mostly to its geographic location and primarily because of the limited surface water as well as the high potential evaporation rates beyond 2000 mm/year. Groundwater therefore quickly becomes crucial, most of which is located in aquifers in the savannah biome which covers a large part of the country. This is also where most industrialization as well as most farming is practiced. It is however unknown how these savannah aquifers are managed on a local scale and how the management strategies influence the long term groundwater levels of the aquifers. To understand these strategies, three research sites along a rainfall gradient, namely Tsumeb area, Waterberg and Kuzikus area were studied. Through means of a self-developed questionnaire tailored for the government officials and farmers, five (5) interviews were conducted with government officials at DWAF. Across all three research sites a total of seventeen (17) farmers were interviewed. For the scientific groundwater management strategy, the sustainable yield was calculated using the catchment area and the recharge of the area. The short-term volume available was calculated for each research site using the formula Volbal = G*Sy (ϕave - ϕmin). The quantitative data from these four strategies were modeled using the Processing MODFLOW modelling software. The results show that the government strategy employed makes use of the Water Act no 54 of 1956. In comparison with the regulatory guidelines such as carrying capacity, many farmers abstract greater volumes per Small and Large livestock unit per hectare. However they have a similar influence on the groundwater levels over time when compared to the government policy guided strategy. The influence on groundwater levels by the farmer and policy guided strategies are well within the scientific sustainable yield strategy.Item The impact of small-scale mining activities on the environment: Examples from Uis, Xoboxobos, Neu Schwaben and Otjinene(University of Namibia, 2017) Chirchir, IsabellaThis study explored the impact of small-scale mining activities on the environment in two regions in Namibia: Erongo (examples: Uis, Neu Schwaben, Xoboxobos) and Omaheke (example: Otjinene). Limited research is done on the activities of small-scale mining in Namibia which results in unavailability of data. Although recent studies reveal that about 5 000 to 10 000 Namibians work as small-scale miners, information about mining activities in Namibia remain a rare commodity. Small-scale miners mostly concentrate on commodities that are easily accessible and do not use mechanised equipment, i.e. tin, tantalum, calcrete and semi-precious stones (tourmaline, aquamarine, topaz, amethyst, garnet, rose and smoky quartz). This study was done through field observations, groundwater analysis and interviews/ questionnaires in order to determine the impact of small-scale mining activities on the environment. Groundwater was analysed for pH, oxidation-reduction-potential and conductivity to evaluate the quality of water. In addition, the study determined the possible environmental impact of small-scale mining activities on the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Data from GROWAS Database was used to supplement the primary data. On the atmosphere, the dust generated by small-scale mining activities was found to be very minimal and thus, only affecting the miners through dust inhalation. This study did not find any evidence of identified impact on the hydrosphere (groundwater) close to the mining sites. The groundwater quality in Neu Schwaben and Uis were excellent based on the analysis done in the field on two boreholes close to the mining sites. The groundwater quality in Neu Schwaben and Otjinene were excellent, but unacceptable for Uis area based on the results from GROWAS database. No boreholes were found in Xoboxobos area. The impact of small scale mining activities at the four sites with regard to the lithosphere was land degradation. Neu Schwaben was the most affected amongst all the four sites observed. Small-scale miners indicated that SSM activities have a positive socio-economic impact through poverty alleviation and employment creation. Although the activities of small-scale miners have a positive impact on the lives of the miners and their families, the same have a negative impact on the environment. The study recommends the government to take an active role in providing mining equipment, training on mining safety, education of small-scale miners on the environment and land rehabilitation. The study further recommends awareness campaigns for small-scale miners in order to ensure that the impact on the environment remains minimal.Item Well log petrophysics and re-interpretation of the exploration target intervals in the southern Walvis basin(University of Namibia, 2018) Domingos, Keron MwatungangeThe Walvis Basin is situated in the eastern Atlantic margin south of the Walvis Ridge offshore Namibia. The Basin is underexplored with only 8 exploration wells drilled in the basin to date. The basin and the entire offshore Namibia at large are extensively covered by 2D and 3D surveys, and despite these comprehensive activities, no commercial discovery of hydrocarbons has been made to date. Some of the reasons the wells failed discovering economic quantities of recoverable hydrocarbons include lack of one or two petroleum system elements and/or processes; with the absence of reservoir or charge being the more common reasons of failure. This project included the analysis of three well log data (Wingat-1, Murombe-1 and 2213/06-1 well) with focus on reservoir unit’s prognoses from seismic profile and comparing them to those of volcanics. Characterization and differentiation of turbidite reservoir units from volcanic intervals involved observing actual petrophysical characteristics and relating those characteristic to seismic reflection amplitudes. Interpretation and preconditioning of well data was performed in Interactive Petrophysics (IP) using standard petrophysical property equations. These properties include neutron-density, resistivity, γ-ray and sonic logs. Thereafter, acoustic impedances were calculated of those volcanic and sandstone unit that have been penetrated by the respective wells at the predicted reservoir depths. The results indicate that volcanic units of the Murombe-1 prospect depicted petrophysical properties similar to those of turbidites sandstones (e.g. the Murombe-1 Baobab sandstones and the Wingat-1 Cenomanian sandstones). In addition, integration of well log with seismic profiles revealed that the volcanics are lava flows with intercalated sediments. The lava flows deposited as a stratified sequence onlappping against an eastern high and herewith their seismic expression is similar to that of a sedimentary succession. Despite the challenges, the basin at large is deemed to be prospective for hydrocarbons with both, mature source rocks and good reservoirs being present.Item A study of isotopic composition of xylem water of woody vegetation and groundwater along a precipitation gradient in Namibia(University of Namibia, 2017) Kanyama, Cristofina M.An understanding of the water used by vegetation in water limited environment is critical to fully understand water relations of natural areas with vegetation. Such information can be integrated in water management plans to estimate the influence of groundwater abstraction on the vegetation. Trees and shrubs are able to access water from: the upper unsaturated soil profile, the capillary zone of a groundwater store, from nearby streams and rivers. Previous studies have proven that uptake of water by roots is not associated with isotope fractionation. Stable isotope ratios of oxygen and hydrogen were analyzed in groundwater, surface water and plant xylem water. Groundwater samples from the north east part of the country (Enyana and Fair constantia) were most depleted, while samples from the southern part (Guruchas) were enriched. A very weak negative correlation (R2=0.07), statistically insignificant (P>0.05) relationship has been noted between δ18O values of precipitation and altitude. The estimated depletion rate was 1.3‰ δ18O per km. The correlation between distance from the coast and δ18O composition of precipitation was negatively weak (R2=0.29) and statistically significant (P<0.05) with an estimated depletion rate of 0.31 ‰ per 100 km inland. The correlation between longitude and δ18O composition of precipitation was very weak (R2=0.016) and statistically insignificant (P>0.05) at roughly 0.09‰ δ18O depletion per degree. A strong negative correlation (R2=0.64) existed between δ18O of precipitation and latitude and it was statistically insignificant (P>0.005). The observed high variability in δ18O and δ2H values of groundwater at different sampling sites was attributed mainly to continental, elevation and amount effect. Both groundwater and xylem water samples plotted below the GMWL, however plant xylem were more depleted in comparison to groundwater. Throughout all the sampling sites there was a considerable variation in average isotope ratio of xylem water of different species examined, but there were still noticeable patterns regarding their main water source. The results displayed that P. juliflora, A. hebeclada and V. erioloba relied mainly on soil water for transpiration. S. mellifera mostly utilized a mixture of groundwater and soil water while B. albitrunca, C. mopane, C. imberbe and T. sericea and R. trichotomum predominantly utilized groundwater. The water uptake pattern is highly attributed to the rooting morphology. These vegetation uptake groundwater and soil water in a hierarchical manner at different depths to avoid competition between species.Item Estimation of hydraulic parameters of the shallow, perched Ohangwena aquifer (KOH-0) and determination of its interaction with the deeper regional Ohangwena aquifer (KOH-1), Ohangwena region, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2015) Ananias, Asteria L.The Ohangwena Multi-Layered Aquifer (KOH) is one of the six Aquifer Systems found in the Cuvelai-Etosha Basin, Namibia. The aquifer system is multi layered, consisting of a shallow perched Ohangwena 0 aquifer (KOH-0), semi-confined Ohangwena I aquifer (KOH-1), and confined Ohangwena II aquifer (KOH-2). Currently, a large portion of the population in the study area rely on water from KOH-0 by means of hand-dug wells. The occurrence and potential of this perched aquifer is not fully understood. This fact motivates the characterization of the aquifer properties, to enable more thoughtful management of the resource. The study evaluates the hydraulic properties of KOH-0 and determine its connection to KOH-1. The methods used in this study included soil sampling, analysis for grain size distribution and review of existing borehole lithology logs. Examination of existing borehole lithology logs indicate that the perched KOH-0 is contained in the Kalahari sand layer from the surface up to 30 m depths, underlain by a multi-layered semi-confining layer with alternating silty sands, clays and calcrete. Based on the documented textures and standard hydraulic conductivity tables, KOH-0 has hydraulic conductivities from 1.20E-04 to 2.83E-04 m/sec and the multi-layered aquitard below, from 3.17E-9 to 1.90E-4 m/sec. Grain size analyses of the aquifer material show that the material consist of fine to course grained sand indicating a hydraulic conductivity that spans between 10-6 and 10-4 m/sec, a porosity between 0.49 and 16.25% and a coefficient of uniformity between 0.369 and 25. Potentially an amount between 2.01E-03 and 5.02E-03 m3/day, may flow from the perched KOH-0 into the unconfined KOH-1 per square meter of aquitard. The estimated amount of horizontal flow through KOH-1 is much higher than this, ranging relatively between 690 m3/day (at minimum hydraulic gradient) and 6700 m3/day (maximum hydraulic gradient). The results have shown that KOH-0 is hydraulically connected to KOH-1, especially in the northern part of the study area with higher hydraulic gradients where most hand dug wells occur and groundwater is younger. This will aid future groundwater development and utilization in the study area.Item Characterization of quartz in some potential high purity quartz deposits in the Damara orogenic belt(University of Namibia, 2016) Siseho, Kamwi R.This research project was aimed at characterizing quartz from selected potential High Purity Quartz (HPQ) deposits in terms of trace element associations, associated trace element concentrations, and growth zones. Six quartz rock samples were collected from three different localities, with two samples collected from each locality. Concentrations of Na, K, Li, Al, Ca, Fe, Ti, B and P were analysed in situ by LA-ICP-MS. This analysis was aimed at finding out whether the total concentrations of these trace elements do not exceed 50 μg g-1 as required by the HPQ definition. The Lowest total concentrations obtained from analysed samples were found to be much higher than the required minimum of less than 50 μg g-1and are given as follows: sample DB2 from the farm Doornboom 316 yielded 2,144.6 μg g-1, sample ALT2 from the farm Alt-Seeis 133 yielded 726.3 μg g-1 and sample MA1 from SP14 pegmatite intrusion in the Cape cross – Uis Pegmatite belt yielded 1,753.5 μg g-1. Analytical results obtained from LA-ICP-MS showed very low Fe concentrations in all three deposits with all samples giving an average of <2μg g-1 and is the only trace element that met HPQ definition requirement of <3 μg g-1 Fe content. All three deposits showed very high average calcium concentration values varying between 450 and 750 μg g-1 and these high concentrations are likely to be associated with the chemistry of the fluids from which the hydrothermal quartz crystallized. Aluminium and alkali metals (Li, Na and K) concentrations were relatively high in all the deposits with fewer exceptions. Average values of lithium were noted as being between 170 and 230 μg g-1, those of sodium as being between 70 and 1600 μg g-1, and those of potassium as being between 65 and 120 μg g-1, while aluminium average values were found to be between 150 and 660 μg g-1. Exceptions were exhibited by sample ALT 2 from the hydrothermal vein deposit at the farm Alt Seeis 133, in which all the alkali metals and aluminium average values were found to be less than 63 μg g-1. Titanium content in all samples was found to be relatively low (averaging between 20 and 31 μg g-1). All the samples from deposits under this study do not meet the requirements of the HPQ definition and are thus not HPQ deposits. However a beneficiation study on these deposits is recommended to establish possible industrial applications that may be feasible. Scanning Electron Microscopy - Cathodoluminescence (SEM-CL) images of quartz grains were obtained from polished carbon coated samples. SEM-CL imaging was aimed at revealing replacements, fluid driven overprints and different quartz generations. The transformation of primary to secondary quartz through replacement was very limited in some samples and absent in others. This implies that metamorphic conditions did not have a major impact if any at all on the chemistry of trace elements in quartz. Statistical interpretation of analytical results from SP14 pegmatite intrusions and those from Doornboom indicate significant compositional similarities.Item Hydrogeological investigation of the Naukluft mountains, southwest Namibia(2014) Kambinda, Winnie N.The Naukluft Mountains area is also referred to as the Naukluft Nappe Complex (NNC), that consist of northwest dipping carbonates and sandstones aged 750 Ma and form part of the Damara Super Group that has been thrust over the younger sedimentary rocks of the Nama Group, aged 550 Ma. In this study, three aquifers are characterized within the study area. First, is the Naukluft Karst Aquifer which is fractured and karstified, and partly underlies the surface run-off catchments of the Tsauchab and Tsondab ephemeral rivers; second is the Nama Aquifer, largely stratified aquifer with limited fractures to the east of the Naukluft Karst Aquifer and third, is the Namib Aquifer, which is a porous phreatic aquifer to the west and south of the Naukluft Karst Aquifer, confined to the alluvial formations of the Tsondab and Tsauchab ephemeral rivers. The Naukluft Karst Aquifer is a high rainfall and discharge area in terms of rainfall; however, in terms of recharge the volume of water available for groundwater recharge is low, due to high surface water discharge from the mountains. National average annual rainfall is 200 mm/a while the study area average is 170.36 mm/a based on the rainfall data collected from farmers during this study. Using the Chloride Mass Balance Method rainfall available for recharge is estimated to range from of 0.41 to 24.43 mm/a translating to 0.24 to 14.24% of received rainfall for the season of 2008/2009 calculated considering only wet deposition values for chloride. Places in the Naukluft Karst Aquifer area receive more rainfall and slightly higher recharge than calculated. Reconnaissance pumping tests were conducted in a well and boreholes at Leybank, Naukluft Park office, Zais and Solitaire to estimate transmissivity. Results indicate that transmissivity ranges from 4.1 to 23.1 m2/d. storage coefficient was not estimated due to lack of piezometers during test pumping. The main groundwater flow is oriented along surface water drainages to the northwest and southwest, with minor flow to the northeast. Flow is controlled by elevation above sea level and structural geology of the Naukluft Karst Aquifer. A west-east trending groundwater divide is identified separating two distinct groundwater flows.Item The source of uranium and vanadium at the Langer Heinrich and Klein Trekkopje uranium deposits-genesis and controlling factors for uranium mineralization, Western Namibia.(2012) Iilende, AbrahamThe Langer Heinrich and Klein Trekkopje U deposits are located within the Namib Desert in Central Namibia. Both deposits are hosted by calcretes developed within palaeo-channel systems of Tertiary age. The sources of both U and V in the two deposits and the reasons why the two deposits differ in terms grade and tonnage have remained unclear to many researchers. The study aimed to resolve these uncertainties. During the study, the geology of the area was reviewed and a number of research methods were employed. U and V concentrations and the mineralogy of various rocks in the catchment area were analyzed by ICP-MS, XRF and thin sections. Leachability of various rocks was studied through the analysis of mineralogy, texture, structures, etc. This study found that the Bloedkoppie granite, which is located in the catchment area for Langer Heinrich, contains about 5 – 15 ppm U and 5 – 20 ppm V. The Tinkas schist, which forms most of the bedrock in the catchment area for the Langer Heinrich deposit, contains 3 – 6 ppm U and 120 – 160 ppm V. The Bloedkoppie granite is considered to represent the source of U for the Langer Heinrich deposit. It is deeply weathered due to its relatively high proportion of ferromagnesian minerals, compared to average granites. The fluid which mobilized U and V from the Bloedkoppie granite also mobilized V from the Tinkas schist. In the case of Klein Trekkopje, the main source of U was the Klein Spitzkoppe granite, Gross Spitzkoppe granite and some Damaran leucogranites. V is considered to be derived from the Kuiseb schist, which contains about 100 – 160 ppm V. The Klein Spitzkoppe granite contains about 10 - 20 ppm U and about 1-3 ppm V whereas the Gross Spitzkoppe granite contains about 15 – 25 ppm U and 3 – 5 ppm V. The catchment area for Langer Heinrich had more V than that of Klein Trekkopje, and V was found to be a key factor in the precipitation of carnotite. The geomorphology around the Langer Heinrich deposit (Etusis and Schieferberge mountains) is more favourable for constriction and ponding of subsurface water unlike that of Klein Trekkopje, which lacks resistant rocks which would restrict the fluids. Oxidizing conditions were fully achieved at Langer Heinrich because there were less saline marine fogs and the subsurface water spent longer periods of time in ponds, resulting in lengthy interaction with air and seasonal rains. By contrast, at Klein Trekkopje, oxidizing conditions were regularly offset by the inflow of highly saline marine fogs and by the fact that poor constriction and ponding resulted in subsurface water moving faster downstream and having less time to interact with oxidizing atmospheric air and rain waters. As a result V4+ could not be effectively oxidized to V5+, which is a pre-requisite for the precipitation of carnotite. Controlling factors for U precipitation in calcretes are redefined in the context of Langer Heinrich and Klein Trekkopje U deposits. Multiple sources of V are proposed. Exploration for calcrete – hosted U deposits could therefore start with investigations of the catchment, by gaging the availability of U and V as well as the suitability of the geomorphology and palaeo-climate.Item The Lithological and structural controls on mineralisation at Kombat mines, Otavi mountainland, Northern Namibia(2009) Changara, Leonard; ;Item Copper(2009) Nujoma, SamCopper is the oldest industrial metal known to man and has contributed to the development of many civilizations in the world, including pre-colonial African communities in southern and central Africa, where copper metal was produced and traded on a wide scale centuries before the arrival of Europeans. Despite having produced 10.6 of world copper metal valued at 193 billion US dollars in the past 100 years, Namibia, Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo have functioned mainly as exporters of copper metal rather than as manufacturers of finished copper products. As a consequence, copper mining has not made a significant impact to the economic development of these countries despite the fact that copper has many varied industrial uses. Industrial plants that add value to the copper metal are required in order to enable Namibia, Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo to manufacture secondary and tertiary copper products, including cable wire for power transmission and generation, construction and telecommunication as well as electrical and electronic equipment