Variations in the use of artificial waterholes by mammals at Okaukuejo and moringa in Etosha National Park, Namibia
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Date
2025
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Publisher
University of Namibia
Abstract
The presence of artificial waterholes can alter local mammal biodiversity. Research on the
impact of artificial waterholes on local mammal biodiversity and studies on the nocturnal
patterns of water usage are limited in Namibia. In this study, large mammals that visited
Okaukuejo and Moringa artificial waterholes in Etosha National Park were studied in the
cool dry season in July 2022 to determine and compare their species richness, patterns of
waterhole usage, duration of stay, and behaviors displayed at the waterholes. A total of 14
large mammal species were recorded at both waterholes. Species richness was
significantly higher at Okaukuejo than at Moringa waterhole, with cape fox (Vulpes
chama), blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) and
warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) sighted at either Moringa or Okaukuejo waterhole.
Zebras (Equus quagga) and springboks (Antidorcas marsupialis) had the highest
abundance at both waterholes and visited at all sampling sessions (03h00- 06h00, 07h00
10h00, 12h00-15h00, 17h00-20h00 and 22h00-01h00). This indicates more water
dependence than other species and may be influenced by the diet and home ranges of these
species. There was a temporal differentiation in the use of the waterholes; mammals
mostly visited between 12h00-15h00 and least between 03h00-06h00. Low overlap in
waterhole visitation times was observed between predators and potential prey, possibly
due to predation risk. The duration of mammal stay was significantly higher at Okaukuejo
than at Moringa for elephants (Loxodonta africana), springboks, and spotted hyenas
(Crocuta crocuta). Duration of mammal stay was significantly higher between 22h00
01h00 at Okaukuejo, and significantly lower between 03h00-06h00 at Moringa than other
sampling sessions. Black rhinos, elephants and giraffes stayed significantly longer at
Okaukuejo, while black rhinos and elephants stayed significantly longer at Moringa,
compared to other species. Vigilance and aggression were the most frequently observed
behaviors among 13 behavior types recorded, possibly driven by the need for water,
predation risk and competition for water. Behaviors occurred at a higher frequency at
Okaukuejo waterhole due to higher species richness and abundance. This study provides
valuable insights on the activity patterns of mammals around artificial waterholes.
Repeated and seasonal observations, incorporating water quality tests at waterholes are
recommended for year-round assessment of mammal waterhole use and for explaining
variations in visitations, species distribution and behaviors of mammals at waterholes
Description
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Biodiversity management and Research
Keywords
Mammals, Richness, Abundance, Composition, Duration, Okaukuejo, Moringa, Competition, Predation, Predator, Herbivores, Carnivores, Ungulates, Vigilance, Aggression, Etosha National Park, Namibia, University of Namibia