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Item Rodent species composition, abundance, richness, and diversity amongst different habitats in two villages in the Mukwe Constituency, Kavango East region of Namibia(University of Namibia, 2024) Kayala, Ester N.Rodents are habitat bio-indicators because their population dynamics respond to changing environmental and habitat alteration such as environmental disturbances. Some rodent species such as Mastomys natalensis are agricultural pests and have caused a lot of damage to crop harvests and peoples’ belongings. Additionally, rodents serve as vectors for deadly diseases which they can transmit to humans. The aim of this study was to examine variations in the rodent species composition, abundance, richness and species diversity amongst different habitats (fallow land, less disturbed land and in the houses) in Bagani and Diyogha village, in the Mukwe Constituency. Trapping was conducted over a period of twelve months using PVC live traps, for three consecutive nights in each habitat. A total number of 285 rodent captures were recorded in 16,272 trap nights; comprising of five different rodent species, which were Mastomys natalensis, Gerbilliscus leucogaster, Thallomys paedulcus, Saccostomus campestris and Steatomys pratensis. A Kruskal-Wallis H test showed that there was no statistically significant difference in rodent species abundance amongst the three habitats in Bagani (χ2 = 1.665, df = 2, p = 0.4101), and Diyogha (χ2 = 1.715, df = 2, p = 0.3978). Whereas the same test has also revealed that there was a statistically significant difference in the rodent species richness between the fallow land (SR = 4) and the less disturbed land (SR = 2) as well as the less disturbed land (SR = 2) and houses (SR = 3) in Bagani (χ2 = 10.81, df = 35, p = 0.0026), and between the fallow land (SR = 2) and houses (SR = 3) in Diyogha (χ2 = 12.18, df = 35, P = 0.001). Additionally, the test revealed that there was no significant difference in the rodent species diversity amongst the three habitats in Bagani (χ2 = 2.551; df = 35, p = 0.147), however, there was a significant difference in the rodent diversity amongst the habitats in Diyogha (χ2 = 4.97; df = 35, p = 0.029). Dunn’s post hoc test was used for all the iii parameters to further explore the differences within the habitats. It showed that there was a significant difference in the rodent species richness between the fallow land and the less disturbed land (p = 0.006) as well as between less disturbed land and the houses (p = 0.001) in Bagani. Whereas in Diyogha, there was a significant difference in the species richness between the fallow land and the houses (p = < 0.002). Lastly, the post hoc test showed a significant difference in rodent species diversity between the fallow land and the houses (p = 0.0084). An HCA based on a Bray Curtis Similarity Index showed that there was a 30% and a 22% similarity in the rodent species composition amongst the three habitats in Bagani and Diyogha, respectively. The Spearman’s correlation (Rs) test revealed that rodent species abundance was weakly positively correlated with the rainfall (r= 0.146, n = 12, p = 0.650) and relative humidity (r = 0.403, n = 12, p = 0.193), however, the temperature (r = -0.05, n = 12, p = 0.87) had a negative influence on the rodent numbers in Bagani. Furthermore, in Diyogha, all three weather parameters had positive correlations to the rodent numbers during different seasons or months. The following study revealed that the different habitats in both villages did not influence the rodent species abundance. A similar study to the current one should be conducted for a period longer than two years in order to compare the influence climatic variables have on the rodent numbers in both Bagani and Diyogha village. However, the study should use a capture-mark-recapture (CMR) technique instead of euthanizing the rodentsItem Analysis of seasonal variation in dietary composition and behaviour of wild chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) in two habitats of different human influence around windhoek, central Namibia(University of Namibia, 2024) Mukuve, Bernhard Z.M.Diet composition of an organism gives a holistic picture of what an organism forages on in its environment to maximize energy intake for all its essential activities that contribute to survival and successful reproduction. Chacma baboons have the ability to modify their broad omnivorous diet and behavior under changing environmental and climatic conditions. However, the ever-increasing environmental and anthropogenic pressures on baboon populations are likely to affect both the diet composition and foraging behavior of these animals. Moreover, Namibia being one of the driest countries in the Sub Saharan Africa, and coupled with accelerated anthropogenic changes, baboon populations, especially those thriving in and around the city of Windhoek are facing constant threats of habitat destruction and fragmentation due to the rapid expansion of the city and are under pressure to adapt to these changes in order to survive. With limited research carried out on primates in the central highlands of Namibia, this study was carried out in an effort to bridge the knowledge gap and obtain insight into the influence humans have on the ecology of these primates around the city of Windhoek. The study investigated the activity budget and diet of the baboons using data collected from two contrasting habitats (Dobra and farm Krumhuk) that are influenced by human activities. A total of 166 baboons were observed during 2 seasons (wet & dry) at two sites using a focal animal method. Forty-nine (49) scat samples were collected between the seasons, separated in the laboratory, weighed, and placed into four categories (fruits and seeds, roots, stems, and leaves, invertebrates, and others). Results showed that baboons consumed plant materials more than any other food type and that they maintained their diet profile across the seasons. Furthermore, their behavior was found to be reactional to seasonal changes. The study further confirmed the ii broad diet and selectivity that exists in the so-called “generalist diet” of these well documented old-world monkeys while also providing an alternative method to enhance scat analysis techniques in the laboratory. The study noted that the human-disposed food waste, stable and constant water supply, preserved wild flora and minimal disturbance regimes around human settlements, all contribute to increased contact with humansItem Development of a “greener” hplc-uv method for the analysis of reducing sugars in apple juice and indigenous fruits using acetone as an alternative solvent(University of Namibia, 2023) Iyambula, Aina KChromatographic techniques can be made more environmentally friendly, i.e., “greener”, by a number of different strategies. One approach is to replace the toxic mobile phase solvents such as acetonitrile with greener alternatives. Acetone, in particular, has proven to be a suitable alternative to acetonitrile, since the two solvents have similar physicochemical properties, including solubility, miscibility and viscosity properties. However, due to acetone’s high ultraviolet (UV) cut–off wavelength (330 nm), it normally cannot be used as a mobile phase solvent when performing high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis with UV detection. In this study, a reversed-phase HPLC–UV method using acetone-containing mobile phase was developed for the determination of reducing sugars in apple juice and two indigenous fruits, Berchemia discolor and Hyphaene petersiana. Pre-column derivatisation of analytes via reductive amination with p-aminobenzoic acid ethyl ester (ABEE) was performed to enable photometric detection at 307 nm. The method was directly compared to a method that utilised acetonitrile-containing mobile phase. Although the detection wavelength of the ABEE derivatives is below the UV cut–off wavelength of acetone, it is high enough above acetone’s absorbance maximum (~280 nm) to enable satisfactory detection of the derivatives. Hence, the method compared well with the acetonitrile method, providing similar resolution and selectivity, as well as sufficient sensitivity to facilitate the quantitation of glucose and fructose in all the fruits and juice investigated in this study. Although the method was only validated in terms of precision, linearity, limit of detection and quantitation but no other aspects such as accuracy, it shows potential to be used as a greener alternative for sugar analysis for laboratories that only have access to HPLC–UV instrumentsItem Comparative study on the quality of Namibian commercial oyster mushrooms cultivated on encroacher bushes as substrates(University of Namibia, 2023) Haukongo, KristineHumans need a wide range of nutrients to have a well-balanced diet, nutritious edible mushrooms can be part of a healthy lifestyle. The objectives of the study were to evaluate the yield and yield components, to determine antioxidant activity, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC) and nutrient composition of different mushroom species cultivated on four different bush encroacher substrates. To provide mushroom cultivation training to farmers in Okondjatu district. Mushrooms were cultivated in 2kg bags of dry substrate, harvested, dried and powdered. Mushrooms powder was extracted in 99.9% methanol. Antioxidant activity of the mushroom extracts were analysed by reducing power and 2, 2 Diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. The TPC and TFC were quantified. Crude protein was calculated (N x 6.25) from determining the amount of nitrogen (N) in mushroom powder using the Dumas combustion method. Potassium and Phosphorus were determined by using the flame emission spectroscopy, while Phosphorus was determined by colorimetry. Neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and Acid detergent fibre (ADF) were analyzed using the Ankom 220 fibre analyzer unit. Mushroom cultivation training was conducted at three randomly selected villages. There was a significance difference in weight of fresh mushrooms, days to first harvest and number of fruiting bodies which was due to mushroom species used at p=0.002, p<0.001 and p=0.019 respectively. Pleurotus florida (PF) yielded more mushrooms with 350 g, followed by PS with 322 g, followed by Pleurotus ostreatus (PO) with 314 g, and the least was on HK 35 with 243 g. The inhibitory concentration at 50% (IC50) values ranged from 0.380±0.098 mg/ml to 0.780±0.007 mg/ml on different mushroom species grown. The inhibition of the DPPH radical by PO extracts cultivated on Terminelia sericea ii (0.380±0.007 mg/ml) showed the highest activity. All Mushroom species grown on different bushes showed an appreciable ability to reduce ferricyanide complex to ferrous form at different concentrations (0.063–1.00 mg/mL). The TPC varied from 3.93 mg GAE/g to 8.016 mg GAE/g. TFC ranged from 0.515 mg QE/g to 12.1 mg QE/g, which showed a significant difference on the bush species (p-value < 0.01). Crude protein content ranged from 28.0% to 39.0%. A significant difference in % NDF on mushroom species was found, where a variation was detected in HK35 while PF, PO, and PS showed a similar performance in % NDF. The study showed that ash content ranged from 5.77% to 17.9%. Percentage moisture ranged from 86.0% to 87.5%. A significant difference in mineral composition, with PO showing a high content of potassium (2.292%), PF showing a high content of sodium (0.059%), and PS showing a high content of phosphorus (0.746%) as compared to other mushroom species. A total of 45 community members participated in the training. In conclusion, all four encroaching bushes can be used as the substrate for mushroom cultivation. All mushroom species showed antioxidant activity and appreciable nutrient and mineral composition, thus can be used as a remedy to illnesses and a supplement to human diets. Therefore, it is essential to promote awareness and train farmers on mushroom cultivationItem Rhizobia inoculant effects on bambara groundnut growth and yield in Namibia(University of Namibia, 2023) Fwanyanga, Felicitas MantjodiBambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc) is the third most significant food legume in Africa after groundnut (Arachis hypogea) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). It is normally grown in poor soils, is drought tolerant, and has a high potential for nitrogen fixation. Despite that, Bambara groundnut yields are on a gradual decline due to a combination of abiotic and biotic stresses such as erratic annual rainfall and climate induced changes in soil microbial community compositions, which negatively impacting food security. Thus, the application of rhizobial inoculants at planting significantly improves yields in many leguminous crops. Moreover, symbiotic inoculants are mainly used in developed countries to improve nitrogen fixation and improve productivity of grain legumes. Sub-Saharan African countries like Namibia, however, still under-utilise the above practice. Three (3) studies were conducted, of which two were conducted in 2021, and in 2021/22 season. The first study was on farmer’s appraisal, which was aimed to assess Bambara groundnut production systems in Kavango East Region. Bambara groundnut farming systems, farming inputs, and production constraints were explored in the two constituencies in Kavango East region. Subsequently, an experiment in a greenhouse of the ZERI at the University of Namibia using soil from the Kavango region to ascertain how well the various Bradyrhizobium strains promote nodulation and yield components among three varieties of Bambara groundnut was conducted. The study also evaluated the strains that are most competitive to reach the roots and promote nodulation in a given period. For the greenhouse experiment, the treatments included three different Bambara groundnut varieties that were inoculated with two types of inoculants (MIX inoculant with 7 Bradyrhizobium strains [1-7; 3B 4-1; 9-5, 36 1-1; 36 3-2; 55 1-1 and 60 2-1] and inoculant with Bradyrhizobium vignae 9-5 only), both of which were obtained from the University of Bremen in Germany the third treatment was an absolute control. The treatments were set up in a randomized complete block design with three replications. In comparison to the single strain 9-5, the mixed strains were found to be more productive and contagious (p=0.05). Moreover, the two inoculants outperformed the non-inoculated cultivars in terms of plant height, shoot dry weight. The brown variety, which was not inoculated, nevertheless, showed some nodules. Hence, in the next season (field ii experiment) the mixed inoculant strains of Bradyrhizobium were applied as single inoculants. The field experiment was conducted at Mashare Agricultural Development Institute (MADI) in Kavango East Region. The same three Bambara groundnut varieties which were used in the greenhouse were treated with chemical fertilizer (urea), 7 Bradyrhizobium strains, and negative control with no treatment. After 130 days of planting the cultivars were harvested and different yield parameters were assessed. The control Var03 (red) yielded the greatest grain at 1311.7 kg ha-1 , followed by Var01 (brown) treated with In1-7 at 1237.3kg ha-1 , while Var01 and Var02 (cream) inoculated with In36 3-2 yielded 1171.3kg ha-1 each. Based on the results, farmers are advised to consider inoculating Bambara groundnut seeds with Bradyrhizobium strains prior to planting, as this has been shown to have a positive impact on nodulation, grain yield, and biomass production compared to using urea fertilizer which is expensive and environmentally unfriendly. However, it is important to note that the control variety Var03 performed the best, likely due to its compatibility with native soil rhizobia. Therefore, it may be worthwhile for more studies to investigate and identify the unidentified strains used in the study as potential bio-inoculants. Additionally, it is recommended that farmers monitor the performance of different varieties in their specific soil conditions and choose the most suitable one for their crop management. Finally, it is important to adhere to best practices for inoculant application, such as using high-quality inoculants and ensuring proper handling and storageItem The spatial, temporal and vertical fish species composition of the kamutjonga floodplain, Kavango river, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2023) Muunda, Vilio TuutileniThe present study investigated the variations in fish species composition on a floodplain during a flood pulse on the floodplain along Kavango River, Namibia. Specifically, the study aimed at comparing the species composition, the catch per unit effort, and the body length of two selected species (Pseudocrenilabrus philander and Tilapia sparrmanii) across periods during the flood, across depth intervals and sites on the floodplain. Further, the study also aimed at determining any correlation between the catch per unit effort and the physio-chemical parameters of the water. A throw trap net was used to sample six (6) sites along the peripheries of the Kamutjonga floodplain during its inundated period (20 February 2020 to 09 June 2020), with each site subdivided into three depth intervals – 0- 29 cm, 30-59 cm and 60-99 cm. Three flooding periods (early, middle and late) were identified during the flood pulse. A total of 48 throws were cast at each site per flooding period, with each depth interval sampled 16 times per site. A total of 30 species were recorded on the floodplain, with the highest number of species (17) recorded during the early flooding period, in the deepest section sampled (60 – 99 cm) (21 species) and at site 2 (20 species). Cichlids dominated the floodplain, with Oreochromis andersonii and Pseudocrenilabrus philander being the most important species during the early and late flooding period, respectively. Few but large specimens were on the floodplain during early flooding, whilst a lot of small (by weight) specimens were during the late flooding periods. More specimens, yet large (by weight) were found on the shallow section (0 – 29 cm) of the floodplain. The findings uphold the significance of the peripheries of newly inundated areas, which are documented to serve as breeding, nursery and forage grounds for most riverine species. A large proportion (83%) of individuals such as those of P. philander were above sexual maturity during the early flooding period, which coincided with the highest number of small-sized specimens during the late flooding period – further hinting at the use of the floodplain as a breeding groundItem Determination of the prevalence and density of true plasmodium falciparum infections and gametocyte carriage during two malaria outbreaks in Zambezi region, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2023) Eloff, LydiaMalaria is a disease caused by parasites from the genus Plasmodium, which are transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. Malaria remains as one of the leading causes of mortality globally. Namibia has successfully reduced the malaria burden by over 90% between 2004 and 2014 and aimed to eliminate the disease by 2020, however, this progress has stalled and it has experienced outbreaks. New approaches are needed to understand and address the reasons for persistent transmission and outbreaks. Accurate diagnosis is a challenge with the routinely used Rapid Diagnostic Tests (RDTs) at low transmission settings as they have been reported to give both false-positive and false-negative results, both outcomes compromise the detection and treatment of all malaria cases. Furthermore, RDTs do not give much information about epidemiological parameters that affect malaria transmission and can be used to assess and mitigate against onward transmission of the disease which includes transmission intensity and risk of transmission. Molecular tools have been reported as being able to identify true malaria infections. This includes parasite species and strains as well as being able to give a more accurate and quantitative reflection of the malaria burden and potential risk of transmission, additional information that RDTs cannot provide. This study was conducted to confirm and identify the Plasmodium species confirmed by RDTs; quantify parasite densities and gametocytes during the 2017 and 2021 outbreak seasons to determine the importance of these parameters in assessing transmission intensity and risk. A total of 589 malaria RDT positives, (251 from the 2017 malaria outbreak and 338 from the 2021 outbreak) from the Zambezi region with corresponding dried blood spots (DBS) were analysed using DNA extracted using the Chelex method for conventional PCR. Only 223/589 (38%) RDT positive samples were confirmed as being true malaria positive: (71/251, 28% for 2017 and 152/338, 45% for 2021). All confirmed samples were identified as Plasmodium falciparum only. The QIAamp DNA kit was used to extract DNA from the 223 confirmed malaria positive samples for quantitative PCR to calculate parasite density for each malaria outbreak season (71 for 2017 and 152 for the 2021 season, a total of 223). The parasitaemia of the samples from each season was calculated and classified as follows: for 2017, low - 13%, moderate - 24%, high - 51%, hyperparasitaemia - 13%; for 2021 low - 24%, moderate - 29%, high - 40%, hyperparasitaemia - 7%. The mean parasite density was higher in 2017 (46088 p/μL) as compared to 2021 (35211 p/μL) (Mann-Whitney, p=0.008). Gametocyte carriage was determined by RTqPCR to detect and quantify the presence of Pfs25 transcripts for female gametocytes. The study showed that as parasitaemia increased, there was a higher chance of detecting gametocytes. Gametocyte detection was found in 59/71 (83%) for 2017 and 98/152 (64%) for 2021 using a Ct value of ≤35 as a cut-off point. There was a significant difference in gametocyte mean for 2017 (116 g/μL) and 2021 (892 g/μL) (Mann-Whitney, p=0.003). There was a moderate correlation between parasitaemia and gametocyte carriage during the 2017 outbreak (rho = 0.6) and a strong correlation for the 2021 outbreak (rho = 1) using Spearman’s Correlation. The Median test showed that during the 2021 outbreak there was no significant difference (p=0.910) between gametocyte carriage in low parasitaemia infections and moderate parasitaemia infections. This showed that low density infections are actually a risk factor for onward transmission of malaria. This study confirmed that P. falciparum is the dominant parasite causing malaria in the Zambezi region during the 2017 and 2021 outbreaks. It also showed that the use of RDTs for Reactive Case Detection (RACD) does not give an accurate picture of true malaria cases during outbreaks, only 38% of cases were confirmed by PCR. Both outbreaks showed moderate parasite density on average although both had high parasitaemia and hyper parasitaemia cases, signals indicative of an outbreak. Parasitaemia also correlated with gametocyte carriage showing that the parasite density was linked with higher transmission risk through gametocyte carriage. Thus, parasite density and gametocyte carriage as determined through the use of molecular tools can be used to assess the risk of transmission. However, further studies should be conducted in dry seasons to have a better understanding of residual transmission, parasite reservoir, and malaria epidemiology as a comparison to the outbreak seasons. The use of additional molecular analysis such as the Multiplicity of Infection (MOI), heterozygosity index and parasite transmission networks can also enrich the data collected during molecular surveillance and its usefulness in heterogeneous malaria transmission settings. It is recommended that molecular surveillance be used during passive surveillance at clinics; used during reactive case detection and Mass Screen and Treat and when targeting interventions to high-risk groups to understand the drivers of sustained transmission. This will contribute to the tailoring of cost-effective interventions and not a one-size fits all blanket intervention.Item Human impact on the biodiversity of macroinvertebrates in intertidal rocky shores along the Namibian coast(University of Namibia, 2023) Ochs, KellyThe intertidal rocky shores along the central coast of Namibia provide multiple microhabitats supporting a high species biodiversity and a unique heterogeneous environment. Extreme anthropogenic disturbance such as harvesting and trampling due to human visitors may reduce biodiversity, modifying species genetic variability and overall ecosystem functioning. This research compares macroinvertebrate assemblage structures, size and diversity between disturbed and less disturbed sites. The study was conducted in March and June 2022 at six different sites along the coast – four disturbed sites and 2 control (less disturbed) sites. At each site, three line transects were used with a 0.5m x 0.5m quadrat placed at 5m intervals for 50m. In each quadrat, samples were counted and collected for identification and measurements. There was a significant difference in species assemblages in March (R = 0.557, P = 0.001) and June (R = 0. 618, P = 0.001) among all sites. There was a correlation between macroinvertebrate communities and sites due to environmental differences such as the type of habitat, water temperatures and human harvesting. Alien invasive mussels such as M. galloprovincialis and S. patagonicus had a significant reduced size (P < 0.05) in disturbed sites compared to control sites in both months. Majority of the limpet species such as S. argenvillei and C. granatina only had a significant smaller size (P < 0.05) in March and showed no significant difference in June. Oxystele variegata had larger sizes at control sites compared to disturbed sites in both months. There was a significant difference in species diversity between disturbed and less disturbed sites in both March (Z = -2.905, P = 0.002) and June (Z= -3.373, P < 0.001) indicating that both control sites had a greater species diversity than the disturbed sites. Human harvesting and trampling along with natural variation may play a crucial role in species assemblage structure, size and species diversity along the Namibian intertidal rocky shore. This study may be useful in filling the knowledge gap about the rocky intertidal structure along the Namibian coast and possibly identifying coastal management requirements.Item Feeding ecology of the African tigerfish Hydrocynus vittatus castelnau, 1861 in the floodplains of the Kavango river, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2023) Tshimwandi, Filippus S.The feeding ecology of the African tigerfish Hydrocynus vittatus was investigated in the floodplains of the Kavango River, Namibia. A total of 275 samples of tigerfish were caught, using a seine and an experimental multifilament gillnet, during the annual flooding period between February and May 2020. The result of the study shows a significant ontogenetic dietary shift (P < 0.05) between size classes of tigerfish. The study also find a significant different (P < 0.05) in the diet composition of different size classes of tigerfish, where small size class tigerfish (20 mm -149 mm) fed predominately on aquatic macro invertebrates, which contributed by percentage number 94.5 % (N%), feeding mainly prey on the group of Corixidae 42.5%, Notonectidae 25.5% and Letophilebiidae 18.2%. Medium size class tigerfish (150 mm – 190 mm) fed on both portions of fish (Enteromius spp) and aquatic macro invertebrates (Trichoptera and Libellulidae)and the large size class tigerfish (200 mm - 585 mm) were predominately piscivorous (68.2 % N), feeding mainly on Cichlidae 34.9% and M. altisambesi 15.9 %. Overall, the results of the study show that tigerfish did not consume prey larger than 150 mm in total length (TL), and the predator - prey length ratio was approximately 23%. The study findings show that tigerfish on the Kamutjonga floodplains feed predominately on aquatic macro invertebrates when in the early stages of life and are piscivorous in the adult stage life. The study results provide important information in understanding the dietary requirement of tigerfish in the Kamutjonga floodplains. Such information is important in conservation measure of tigerfish. Henceforth, the study recommended multi-species modeling studies based on predator-prey interactions, in order to better understand, resource use and partitioning among species on the Kamutjonga floodplain.Item Phytochemical analysis and acetylcholinesterase inhibition activity of medicinal plants used in the traditional treatment of mental disorders in Kavango east region of Namibia(University of Namibia, 2022) Nghilalulwa, Theodor Nande N.In Namibia, various plants are used in the treatment of various illnesses in traditional healing systems, however the majority of these plants have not been characterised in terms of chemical constituents, and therefore, their safety and efficacy are unknown. The present study focused on the phytochemical analysis and evaluation of the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition activity of the extracts of five medicinal plants (Laggera decurrens, Ficus glumosa, Psendolachnostylis maprounifolia, Ochna pulchra and Ozoroa longipes) used in the traditional treatment of mental disorders in Kavango east region. Extracts were prepared from the powdered roots and leaves of the plants using dichloromethane/methanol (50/50, %v/v) and ethanol. Extracts were screened for the presence of alkaloids, saponins, diterpenes and flavonoids using standard methods. Saponins, diterpenes and flavonoids were found to be present in all the extracts, except for the leaves of O. longipes, while no alkaloids were detected in any of the plant extracts. Diterpenes appeared to be the most abundant phytochemicals for most of the samples. Leaf extracts exhibited varying levels of AChE inhibition activity. The L. decurrens proved to be the most potent plant species with percentage inhibition ranging from 74–101% for the dichloromethane/methanol (DCM/MeOH) extract and 93–106% for the ethanol extract. The highest inhibition percentages were observed at concentrations of 200 and 100 µg/mL for the DCM/MeOH and ethanol extracts respectively. Compounds were be tentatively assigned to chemical classes based on their ultraviolet absorption spectra. Future studies should employ spectroscopic techniques such as mass spectroscopy (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to identify the chemical compounds present in these extractsItem Potential of selected microalgae in bioremediation of wastewater polluted dam water: A case of Goreangab dam in Windhoek, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2022) Ndura, JenniferThe study was aimed at determining the efficacy of freshwater microalgae in the treatment of polluted dam water with respect to the reduction of pathogen loads, as well as the concentrations of heavy metals and nutrients. Microalgae collected to treat water samples from the Goreangab Dam were collected from the Klein Windhoek River, Avis Dam as well as the Goreangab Dam. Identification of the microalgae species revealed the presence of the Microcystis species in the Goreangab Dam (control), Anabaena species in the Klein Windhoek River (treatment 1) and the Scenesdesmus species as well as the Anabaena species in the Avis Dam (treatment 2). The water samples in 12 L conical flasks each containing 1.5 L of Goreangab Dam water were treated in a greenhouse facility at the University of Namibia for a period of 12 days. Triplicate 100 ml samples were collected from the flask at day 0, day 6 and day 12 and quantitatively assessed for faecal and total coliform bacteria, heavy metals (Pb and Cd) as well as nutrients (phosphorous and nitrates). A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that there were no statistical differences between the mean values of Pb (p = 0.346) and Cd (p = 0.940) concentrations after treatment with microalgae. The Kruskal Wallis tests indicated statistical differences between the mean values of the nitrate levels (H(3) = 8.597 , p = 0.035) after treatment with microalgae. And the Pair Wise Comparisons indicated significant differences in nitrate uptake between treatment 1 and treatment 2 (p = 0.039) and also between treatment 2 and treatment 3 (p=0.005). However, the ANOVA indicated that there were no significant differences between the mean values of total phosphate uptake (p = 0.052) after treatment with microalgae. The results for pathogen loads in the wastewater samples indicated that there were statistical differences between the mean values of total coliform ((H(3) = 10.352 , p = 0.015) after treatment with microalgae. Further, the Pair Wise Comparisons indicated significant differences in total coliform removal between the control and the consortium (p = 0.040), between the control and treatment 2 (p=0.002) and between treatment 1 and treatment 2 (p = 0.040). Additionally, for faecal coliform presence the results indicated statistical differences between the mean values (H(3) = 10.421 , p = 0.015) after treatment with microalgae and the Pair Wise Comparisons indicated significant iii differences in faecal coliform removal between the control and treatment 2 (p = 0.002), between the control and the consortium (p=0.041) and also between treatment 1 and treatment 2 (p = 0.041). Given this evidence the use of microalgae in bioremediation is effective in the removal of pathogen loads and excessive nutrients from wastewater.Item The effects of prebiotics on the growth performance and gastrointestinal microflora modulation in oreochromis mossambicus in Hardap region, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2022) Salushando, KauloAquaculture across the world is growing exponentially, and has certainly gained popularity among small scale farmers in Namibia. Aquaculture aims to take on the increasing demand of fish as a food source in light of depleting fish stocks in natural water systems. Therefore, studies aiming to improve aquaculture production in eco-friendly and sustainable ways, such as, adopting measures that improve fish performance and health are necessary, for example, the use of feed additives such as prebiotics, probiotics and synbiotics. This study aimed to investigate the prebiotic effect of dietary inulin and Termitomyces schimperi mushroom powder incorporated in fish feed on the growth performance and modulation of gastrointestinal microflora in Oreochromis mossambicus. Three experimental diets; inulin, inulin+ mushroom and control were made at 1% dry weight of feed inclusion level. Furthermore, initial and final body mass and daily feed consumption records were used to determine growth performance and feed utilization parameters; while fish tissue samples were used to determine proximate composition analyses. 16S metagenomics sequencing of the bacterial communities available in the intestinal samples were carried out on Illumina Miseq with primers targeting the V3-V4 region of ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA). The results of this study showed that the weight gain rate (WGR) and specific growth rate (SGR) of fish fed the control diet (152.59 ± 9.61 & 2.15 ± 0.09 respectively) were significantly higher (P value ≤ 0.05) than those fed the inulin diet (117.25 ± 6.20 & 1.80 ± 0.07 respectively). However, the results indicated that there were no significant differences (P values ≥ 0.05) among the experimental diets in terms of feed conversion ratio (FCR), survival rate (SR), fat, moisture, ash and protein contents. The colony-forming units (CFU) in the inulin group ii (3.54 ± 0.05 log 10 CFU/g) were significantly lower (P value ≤ 0.05) than the control group (3.54 ± 0.05 log 10 CFU/g). On the other hand, it was discovered that I group showed higher alpha and beta diversity indexes in comparison to the control and inulin + mushroom groups. Typical examples of phyla identified include Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes. At the genus level, relative abundance showed higher variation in the most abundant genera between samples. This study established that the inclusion of inulin and T. schimperi powder had no significant effect on the growth performance and proximate composition of O. mossambicus. On the other hand, the inclusion of inulin powder resulted in the reduction of viable gut microbiota counts in culture dependent methods, as well as higher alpha & beta diversity indices in culture independent methods in comparison to mushroom powder and the control. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to document the inclusion of T. schimperi powder as a prebiotic in fish feed. This study recommends the incorporation of prebiotics in fish feed before extrusion to ensure homogeneity of prebiotics and feed mixture. In addition, future studies should consider doing stress challenges to the fish to test the health benefit (resistance to stress) of fish fed with prebiotics. Moreover, further sequence analyses are recommended to identify the amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) without taxonomic classification in this study.Item Antimicrobial activity of fungal secondary metabolites isolated from pearl millet on gut microflora(University of Namibia, 2022) Nghaamwa, Pamela M.N.Pearl millet also known as mahangu in Namibia is a crop commonly found regions in the Northern part of Namibia such as Zambezi and Ohangwena region. Pearl millet is a common staple food of a certain percentage of Namibians. Traditional methods used for processing millet comprise of threshing, cleaning, washing, soaking, germination, wet and dry milling and fermentation. The fungal species gain access to grain matrices, depending on the type of environmental conditions certain secondary metabolites are generated this may occur during the pre-harvest, storage, transportation, processing, and marketing stages. Hazardous secondary metabolites with antimicrobial properties for instance polyketide, non-ribosomal peptides, alkaloids, and terpenes are produced by fungi and can cause food poisoning and possibly affect the microflora in the gut. It is important to identify and document whether fungi that produce antimicrobial secondary metabolites are present in mahangu that may affect the microflora. Even though sophisticated machinery exist, traditional methods of food storage and preparation are still being used in certain parts of the country. These traditional methods are seldom done in unhygienic conditions resulting in contamination of the food. The effect of food poisoning by fungi in Namibia is unknown, to the best of my knowledge there are fewer studies in Namibia that focused on the effect of antimicrobial fungi secondary metabolites on the microflora found in the gut. For this reason this study focused on isolating fungal species from pearl millet and testing their antimicrobial ability on four gut microflora E. coli ATCC 33849, K. pneumoniae ATCC BAA- 2146, L. monocytogenes and L. plantarum ATCC 8014. The pearl millet was bought from the local market and serial dilution was performed using distilled water. The solution of pearl millet with a dilution of 1:100 000 was plated on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar, it was then sub cultured until pure fungal isolates was obtained. Fungi were identified on the basis of colony characteristics and microscopic examinations. The following six types of fungi were identified Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Saccharomyces sp., Rhodotorula sp., Trichosporon sp. and Saccharomyces sp. Ethyl acetate was used for extraction of the secondary metabolites and agar well diffusion was used to test for ii antimicrobial activity. Then Minimum Inhibitory Concentration was carried out only with fungi which produced zones of inhibition against the selected bacteria, lastly Minimum Bactericidal Concentration was carried out. The analytic test used showed that there was a significant difference in the antimicrobial activity among different fungal species p= 0.019. The fungus A. niger did not show any form of antimicrobial activity while Saccharomyces sp. showed the highest inhibitory effects with a mean value of 12.16 ± 0.21. The fungus A. flavus showed more inhibitory activity against the following bacterial strain L. plantarum, L. monocytogenes and K. pneumoniae at 7.5 mg/ml when MIC was carried out. The extract from A. flavus was the only extract exhibiting bactericidal effects and this was seen against K. pneumoniae and L. plantarum. It is evident that gut microflora can be affected by secondary metabolites of fungi from pearl millet which can lead to detrimental effects in humans. Further studies are required to detect secondary metabolites that could cause harm to the gut microflora also what dosage level is required to cause an effect in vivo on gut microflora.Item Antimicrobial effect of selected probiotic strains on salmonella typhimurium and e. coli o157:h7 isolated in a commercial slaughterhouse in Windhoek, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2022) Shapwa, Kalihulu MarthaIn recent years, Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) have gained popularity due to their preservative and antimicrobial activities. Therefore, there has been a growing interest in researching and developing new antimicrobial agents from various sources to control and eliminate pathogens such as Salmonella typhimurium and E. coli O157:H7 in food niches. The two pathogens are the major causative agents of foodborne diseases especially in meat products. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of selected commercial probiotic strains of P. acidilactici and P. pentosaceus against S. typhimurium and E. coli O157:H7 isolated from beef samples using monoculture and co-cultures design. Beef samples were collected from Meatco Abattoir and antimicrobial activity of the probiotics strains was evaluated using pour plate methods over general and selective media such as Salmonella Shigella (SS) agar and MacConkey agar. The optical density (OD) was measured at 600 nm to study the growth kinetics of microbial mass for the probiotic and pathogenic strains in mono and co-cultures models. The co-cultures of S. typhimurium and P. acidilactici gave the significant reduction of 1.2 log cfu in S. typhimurium population, indicating that, it is more sensitive to the tested Pediococcus strains than E. coli O157:H7. Both LAB strains showed antagonistic activities against S. typhimurium and E. coli O157:H7, although none of the LAB showed a complete inhibition. However, P. acidilactici had a greater antimicrobial activity compared to P. pentosaceus. The OD value of S. typhimurium co-culture decreased with 2.24 log cfu when it was co-cultured with P. acidilactici and 2.28 log cfu when it was co-cultured with P. pentosaceus. Meanwhile, OD value of E. coli O157:H7 decreased significantly with 2.22 log cfu when it was co-cultured with P. pentosaceus and 2.33 log cfu with P. acidilactici showing their potential bio-preservation in meat products. However, further confirmatory tests are ii needed especially in their permitted concentration on the surface of cow carcasses and meat cuts during the storage.Item Analysis of food safety and food handling knowledge among street food vendors in selected local food markets in Windhoek(University of Namibia, 2022) Ngalangi, PaulusContaminated food leads to foodborne disease outbreaks (FDO) that cause millions of deaths among people every year. In Namibia, many low and middle-income consumers use street-vended foods (SVF) with compromised quality of raw materials, degraded handling and storage conditions that do not meet food safety standards. Therefore, this study was conducted by means of a descriptive, cross-sectional study of six Windhoek locations of Okuryangava, Katutura, Klein Windhoek, Kleine Kuppe, Prosperita, and Otjomuise. Food samples were purchased for laboratory analysis to determine pH, moisture and total plate count (TPC). Systems-Theoretic Accident Models and Processes (STAMP) was adopted, informed by data gathered based on event chain models drawn from street food handlers (SFH). Food-handlers were knowledgeable about the need for hygienic practices such as hand washing (94.6%), and cleaning of utensils (83.5%). Knowledge on food pathogens revealed that 72.1% did not know food pathogens such as Salmonella, Listeria, Campylobacter, and E. coli, meanwhile, only 28.4% did not know that parasites, fungi, and viruses act as agents to cause food poisoning. There is a none-consistent pattern of SFH knowledge with regard to hygienic practices during food handling and processing. pH values were lower (3.21±0.29) for liquid beverage than all solid foods that ranged from 6.81±0.10 to 7.54±0.16. The moisture percentage was higher (90.97±0.85) for liquid beverage than all solid foods that ranged from 37.66±1.20 to 63.28±0.89. High TPC of 5.28±0.49 Log CFU/g was detected in matangara, followed by sausage (5.06±0.99), kapana (3.07±0.47), and oshifima (2.66±1.99). STAMP with ready to use scenarios was introduced to deal with accidents that lead to FDO. Moreover, an assessment of the potency and appropriateness of food preservation methods and preservatives are ii recommended. A robust food safety regulatory regime, including a strong component of food safety training for contamination prevention should be pursued and is recommended for SVF handlersItem Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Moringa oleifera extracts and their evaluation against antibiotic resistant strains of escherichia coli and staphylococcus aureus(University of Namibia, 2022) Sinvula, SimasikuIt is of great concern that bacteria are forming resistance to common antibiotics meant to prevent or cure them. For this reason, researchers are engaged in synthesis of nanoparticles using medicinal plants to solve the problem of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. The aim of the study was to synthesize silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using M. oleifera extracts and compare antibacterial activities of AgNPs prepared in M. oleifera extracts with AgNPs of common antibiotics (penicillin G and streptomycin) against antibiotic resistant strains of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Synthesized AgNPs were characterized using UV-vis spectroscopy, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Disc diffusion method was used for initial screening of antibacterial activities and their minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined. Formation of AgNPs was confirmed by colour change from pale yellow to dark brown-black. UV-vis spectra analysis showed maximum peak of 400-440 nm. FTIR analysis revealed the presence of hydroxyl and carbonyl functional groups, as well as C-N and C-O bonds that might be responsible for capping, stabilizing and reducing AgNPs. SEM analysis revealed crystalline AgNPs with mean average size of 46.49 ± 0.73 nm to 60.96 ± 1.17 nm. The combination of AgNPs with antibiotics showed better antibacterial activities as compared to AgNPs alone and streptomycin alone. Lowest MIC values were 12.5 mg/mL, 1.56 mg/mL and 3.13 mg/mL for Mo-AgNPs, Mo-AgNPs-Penicillin G and Mo-AgNPs-streptomycin combination respectively. It can then be concluded that M. oleifera has strong potential for synthesis of AgNPs, and combination of AgNPs with common antibiotics sheds light in the direction of decreasing odds of antibiotic resistance development of these pathogens.Item Clinicopathological study of snakebite injury resulting from Zebra spitting Cobra (naja nigricincta nigricincta) and Puff adder (bitis arietans)(University of Namibia, 2022) Niiteta, KatrinaSnakebite injury is a significant public health hazard worldwide, with an estimated 1.8 – 2.7 million people bitten annually by venomous snakes, resulting in about 81 000 – 137 8800 deaths. It is frequently overlooked and understudied, and it primarily affects rural and remote areas. Snakebites have been reported to be common in Namibia. The most commonly striking species being the zebra spitting cobra (Naja nigricincta nigricincta) and the puff adder (Bitis areitans) which are also regarded to be among the most venomous. There is a lack of information on snakebite pathology with few health care facilities equipped to treat snakebites. This study described for the first time, clinical course of patients bitten by Naja nigricincta nigricincta (N. n. nigricincta) and Bitis areitans (B. a. arietans) in Namibia. Furthermore, the current study evaluated systemic symptoms of organ damage as well as patient’s recovery from snakebite injuries. This was a mixed method, observational study including 20 patients with snakebite injury who presented to and were treated at Namibia's two major referral hospitals, Katutura Intermediate State Hospital and Windhoek Central Hospital. Clinical and laboratory data were gathered from patient hospital records and personal observation. GraphPad Prism (version 8.0.2) software was utilized for the analysis. Out of 20 cases of snakebites, the majority of about 65 % (13) were males, with minors between the age of 0 – 15 years accounting for 65 % (13) of the snakebite cases. N. n. nigricincta was responsible for 60 % (12) of the snakebite injuries and 40 % (8) by B. a. arietans. Most patients (80 %) admitted to the hospital showed cytotoxic bites, with two cases of dry bites from B. a. arietans. Neurotoxicity was observed in 40 % (8) patients bitten by N. n. nigricincta and 10 % (2) bitten by B. a. arietans. Snake antivenom was only administered to 15 % (3) patients with snakebite injuries. The bite of a N. n. nigricincta was associated with anaemia, haemolysis, rhabdomyolysis, kidney damage, and liver damage. Whereas bites form B. a. arietans had no systemic damage, beside mild neurotoxicity in the patients. Three patients of the snakebite cases required amputation, with no fatalities, and six required physiotherapy intervention to restore, maintain, and improve most of the participants' mobility and functions. In conclusion, the study demonstrated that in general snakebite injuries is common in Namibia. To reduce chances of complications it is essential that community members present early to health facilities. For the first time, this study documented clinical pathology induced by N. n. nigricincta and B. a. arietans in Namibia.Item Nutritional status, infant and young child feeding among children aged 6-59 months in Windhoek and surrounding areas, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2022) Namene, JohannaMalnutrition is a global health concern in children under five years, and often presents as stunting, underweight, overweight and wasting. Measurement errors in taking anthropometry limits their validity in defining childhood malnutrition, resulting in need for alternative techniques. This study aimed to determine the nutritional status of Namibian children under five years, and to correlate these findings with their dietary practices, as well as test new digital technologies in child anthropometric measurements. A cross-sectional, descriptive study was conducted on Namibian children between the age of 6 to 59 months, using anthropometric measurements of weight, height and mid-upper arm circumference. Height was collected using three different instruments, an analog height board, a digi-board and a 3D scanning mobile phone app called Child Growth Monitor (CGM). The reliability of the digi-board was assessed using technical error of measurement (TEM), percentage technical error of measurement (%TEM), intra class correlation (ICC) and statistical tests on absolute differences. Accuracy of the CGM 3D imaging to diagnose stunting was assessed by sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV). In all these assessments, the analog height board was considered as the gold standard and used for comparison. A dietary survey was conducted using a 24-hour food recall questionnaire. The study recruited 612 children, of which 425 children yielded data using the digital board and analog height board and 187 children yielded data using the CGM 3D imaging and analog height board. The prevalence of malnutrition was determined to be 29.6% stunting, 4.5% wasting, 16.7% underweight and 2.4% overweight, based on the traditional analog height board. The digi-board indicated superiority to the analog height board in terms of reliability (analog TEM = 0.22, digi-board TEM=0.16), while the CGM 3D imaging underestimated children for wasting (analog and CGM 3D imaging = 7% and 1.1%). Underweight and stunting estimated similarly (analog and CGM 3D imaging = 15% and 13.3% for underweight, and 26.9% and 27% for stunting, respectively). There was a low positive correlation between malnutrition and dietary diversity of children, and food diversity was found to improve child health. In this study, the prevalence of stunting is moderate according to the World Health Organisation cut-offs, confirming that stunted growth is still a health problem in Namibian children under five years, and proper interventions such as food donations and educational programmes to mothers on breast- and young child feeding practices are required to address these issues.Item Eutrophication assessment in the Kavango river system from Rundu to Divundu, Namibia(University of Namibia, 2022) Haikola, Ester IshiwaEutrophication is one of the most serious problems facing freshwater ecosystems globally. Nutrient enrichment of these freshwater ecosystems results in excessive plant and algal growth that have negative effects on biodiversity and water quality. The present study was conducted at six selected sites from Rundu to Divundu along the Kavango River namely; Rundu, Mashare, Shitemo Irrigation schemes, Quito, Shadikongoro Irrigation systems and Divundu. The overall objective of the study was to assess the level of eutrophication of the Kavango river downstream from Rundu to Divundu in Namibia by assessing concentration levels of Total Nitrogen, Total phosphate and Ortho-phosphate in the water. Water samples were collected in 50 ml plastic bottles from the main flow along the Kavango river gradient. Each site was sampled upstream (Before the site) and downstream (After the site) from Rundu to Divundu. Water samples were collected 3-5 cm below the surface following United States Environmental Protection Agency standards. Sampled water was analysed for Total Nitrogen (N), Total Phosphate (P), Ortho-phosphate using Inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). Dissolved oxygen was also measured 3-5 cm below the water surface. Simple Linear Regression was used to test the effect of distance on the concentration levels of Total Nitrogen, Total Phosphates and Ortho-phosphate. The Wilcoxon Signed Rank test was used to compare nutrient concentration levels, flow rates and dissolved oxygen before and after sites. To test for compliance with acceptable standards International Water Quality Guidelines (IWQES) and South African Water Quality Guidelines for Aquatic Ecosystems (SAWQG), one Sample Wilcoxon Signed Rank test was used for non-parametric data and one -sample t test was used for parametric data. There was no significant relationship between concentrations of Total Nitrogen and Total phosphate concentration in the Kavango river and the distance downstream from Rundu to Divundu. However, there was a significant relationship between the concentration of Ortho-phosphate (mg/l) and distance along the Kavango River (p= 0.028; R 2 =0.42971). Furthermore, there was no significant difference in concentrations of Total nitrogen, Total phosphate and Ortho-phosphate. The study also revealed no significant difference in flow rate and dissolved oxygen before and after the sampled sites. Total Nitrogen concentration in the River was significantly lower (p = 0.001) than the allowable general standards limit of 0.3mg/l set by US EPA (2000), and lower than the allowable concentration limit of 2.5mg/l as set by South African Water Quality Guidelines for Aquatic Ecosystems, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (1996) value (p = 0.001). Although the observed Total phosphate in the Kavango River were significantly higher (p = 0.000) than the allowable general standards Total phosphate concentration limits of (0.1mg/l) set by US EPA (2000), the same Total phosphate concentrations were significantly lower (p = 0.001) than the allowable concentration limit of 2.5mg/l as set by South African Water Quality Guidelines for Aquatic Ecosystems, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (1996). Total Phosphate concentrations of the Kavango River are below the acceptable regional limit, but do not comply with the standards set by the USEPA. However, the concentration of Ortho-phosphate in the Kavango River was significantly lower (p = 0.002) than both the allowable concentration limit (0.1 mg/l) as set by South African Water Quality Guidelines for Aquatic Ecosystems, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (1996) and the allowable standard set by US EPA (2000). This study highlights the need to continually assess the nutrient concentration levels in the Kavango River to ensure that the nutrient loads are within the set regional and international guidelines, especially in this age where human population as well as the number of irrigation schemes in the area continue to increase.Item Microbial diversity, nutritional value and antioxidant activity of the edible giant African bullfrog (Pyxicephalus Adspersus Tschudi, 1838) meat from Oshana region of Namibia(University of Namibia, 2022) Hatutale, Martha NdapandulaThe seasonal, edible African Bullfrog Pyxicephalus adspersus, a notable indigenous food in Northern Namibia, is a good nourishment for human consumption and an alternative source of proteins. However, consumption of this species harvested after the first rain of the rainy season has been reported to be associated with severe dysuria. No study has been conducted to decipher its cause or consequent deleterious effects. Additionally, nutritional composition and the antioxidant properties of this meat species in Namibia have not been investigated. This study is a preliminary attempt to reveal the nutritional composition including antioxidant activities as well as the bacterial diversity associated with this species. Frog meat was analysed for crude protein, ash, crude fat and moisture content using standard analytical methods. Moreover, the antioxidant activity of methanol extract of the frog meat was evaluated using DPPH assay, nitric oxide as well as reducing power assay. The results showed that the highest crude protein recorded was 21±0.00%, ash was found to be 1.19±0.32%, crude fat was 1.65±2.71% while moisture content was 78.21±0.38%. Moreover, frog meat extracts exhibited antioxidant activity with the highest reducing power absorbance of 0.98±0.66 at 700nm, DPPH free radical scavenging of 51.13±18.26% inhibition, and a much lower nitric oxide inhibition of about 34.57±35.85%. Furthermore, metagenomics data reveal four phyla associated with Giant African Bullfrog meat, where Firmicutes is the most abundant accounting for nearly 90% of the total bacterial accumulation. In addition, metagenomics revealed a few pathogenic species such as Lactococcus garvieae which is related to urinary tract infection in humans. Moreover, Lactococcus lactis which is highly studied in food fermentation research is one of the dominant species in this study. These findings endorsed the consumption of this species as a source of protein and antioxidants. The results indicated that frogs might have a valuable chemical composition as compared to other types of meat. Therefore, frog meat has the potential of attracting the attention of food technologists and dieticians as a healthy and valuable source of food based on its chemical composition.