School of Business Management, Governance & Economics

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Accountability and democracy
(Idasa., 2012) Blaauw, Lesley
Adoption and utilisation of workplace e-learning practices in the public sector organisations: A systematic review
(Journal of learning for developement, 2023) Serema, Marguerite Margie; Shihomeka, Sadrag P.; Shalyefu, Rakel Kavena
The e-learning concept is increasingly receiving attention in education butthere seems to be inadequate guidance in developing a formal programme for implementing e-learning, especially in the public sector. Hence, this study focuses on aggregating information on the adoption and utilisation of e-learning in the public sector and attempting the development of a conceptual model for understanding workplace e-learning implementation. A systematic search of the literature was conducted to collect all the literature addressing the adoption and utilisation of e-learning in the public sector. This review brought to light key factors that influence the adoption and utilisation of e-learning amongst public sector employees, including attitude, satisfaction, behaviour intention, continuance intention, or behaviour to use e-learning. The adoption and utilisation of e-learning in the public sector requires a carefully thought-through and evidence-based approach, especially the development of the e-learning programme
Affirmative action and black empowerment in tourism industry
(2000) Haindongo, Shikwetepo
No abstract by author in copy of thesis available at UNAM. The following is taken from the author's introduction:
The African Union (AU), the African Youth Commission (AYC) and the Pan-African Youth Union (PYU): Sabotaging or bureaucratizing the youth?
(2018) Amupanda, Job S.
There now exists overwhelming evidence that many African states are gerontocracies - states wherein the leadership is way older than the average age of the population. Whereas these discussions were previously attributed to external observers of African politics, particularly observers from the western world, this question of and on African leadership has now gained domestic root. The youth of the continent has since started demanding their places at various decision-making tables within their nation states. This has led to generational antagonism of which some have led to youth-led uprisings. While there are several analyses at the state level, there has been little analysis of the relationship between the African Union (AU) and the youth of the continent. This text takes the analysis to the continental level. The text does not only concern a continental analysis, it’s most important contribution is to add new developments that have not appeared in much of the contemporary literature on African development. To buttress these perspectives, the text looks at the relationship between the AU and two continental youth organizations: the PYU (Pan-African Youth Union) and the AYC (African Youth Commission). It reveals that at the time of writing, Africa was the only continent without a recognized continental youth body. The text is aimed at provoking further questions and discussions on the AU’s youth discourse with this daring question: sabotaging or bureaucratizing youth?
Agriculture and manufacturing sector growth in Namibia during the period 1981 to 2012: A granger causality test
(2014) Siboleka, Milner; Nyambe, Jacob M.; Osterkamp, Rigmar
Namibia became independent in 1990. Since then, the democratic government has pursued various development policy tools to empower Namibians economically. The 4th National Development Plan identified four strategic economic growth enhancing activities, namely agriculture, manufacturing, logistics and tourism. Agriculture remains the largest employer while manufacturing, logistics and tourism are growing, but slowly. This paper is premised on investigating whether or not there is a causal and long term relationship between agriculture and manufacturing sector growth over the period 1981-2012. Ascertaining the direction of the relationship is part of the objectives. Analytical methods that were used include unit root, correlation test and a Granger Causality model. With the use of time series data, the results confirmed stationarity of the data. With 31 observations, no causal relationships were established between agriculture and manufacturing in Namibia. Appropriate policy interventions are required to influence how the two sectors should benefit from each other. Such holds potential for both sustained employment creation opportunities and economic growth in Namibia.
Alternative institutional arrangements of accelerating the implementation of rural electrification in Namibia
(2007) Muyenga-Muyenga, Simon; ;
Abstract provided by author
An analysis of the challenges hampering the successful implementation of gender based violence policies: A case study of the Kavango East region of Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2024) Likando, Johanna M.; Lwendo, Sitali Brian
This study was aimed at analysing the challenges hampering the successful implementation of Gender-Based Violence (GBV) policies in Namibia using the Kavango East Region as the unit of analysis. The study employed a descriptive and case study research design. A semi-structured questionnaire and an interview guide were used as data collection instruments. Thirty-five (35) respondents were purposively and conveniently selected from key stakeholders (regional councillors, traditional leaders, and Church leaders, civil society, government ministries). The empirical data collected from respondents was analysed qualitatively using thematic and content analysis to complement documentary analysis of secondary data. The thematic presentation and discussion of the results was guided by the study research questions. The findings of study revealed that it was imperative to review the existing policies on GBV to accommodate emerging issues if radical change in reducing GBV is expected. The findings of the study further revealed that key stakeholders such as civil society organisations, traditional leaders, church leaders and community members were not fully engaged and involved in the design of appropriate measures that would ensure effective and efficient implementation of policies aimed at reducing GBV. Given the gap between GBV policy and practice, the study advanced key recommendations that hinge on, capacity building for various key stakeholders, adopting technology in reporting of GBV cases, developing strategies to enhance coordination, monitoring and evaluation of the policy implementation, creation of effective engagement platforms for communities, traditional and church leaders on GBV matters, and robust revision of the existing GBV policies and Action Plans
An analysis of the effects of daily subsistence allowances expenditure on the overall budget and service goals of the Ministry of Safety and Security in Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2020) Egumbo, Raimo; Sunde, Tafirenyika
As per the State Finance Act, 1991, to reimburse out-of-pocket expenses for trave I expenses incurred when on work-related responsibilities and to encourage staff to attend professional development activities, the Daily subsistence allowances (DSA) rates had to be established. However, weaknesses in the control of daily subsistence allowances expenditure can cause problems, including distortions of human resource systems, fraud , and misuse by the staffs, which has the potential to affect government's objectives adversely through corruption. The purpose ofthis study was to analyse the effects of daily subsistence allowances expenditure on the overall budget and service goals ofthe Ministry of Safety and Security in Windhoek, Namibia as from the financial year 20 I 0/20 I I to 2015/2016. The analysis of daily subsistence allowances effects on the overall budget identifies the risks of malpractice and fraud and offer suggestions for improvement. The study applied mixed methods. The population size was 174 and the sample size comprised of I 08 respondents. The research instrument used in this study was a self-administered questionnaire, distributed to I 08 respondents. The study found out that, overspending has become the order ofthe day and this is done at the expense of service delivery. There was too much movement of members for the same mission and time. This revealed that there are no proper measures to control the activities when it comes to official missions. Sometimes staffs have created unnecessary missions just to earn extra income to solve their problems, and this harms daily subsistence allowances expenditure and the Ministry's overall budget. In addition to that, the study also found that there was a lack of financial control measures caused by poor management and lack of accountability regarding the use of daily subsistence allowances in the line Ministry. Given the findings of the research, the researcher recommends that theM inistry o fSafety and Security should make a yearly plan for their missions, which the line Minister are supposed to know by the beginning of the year. The Mission Committee must be the one in charge of the planning of the mission, organising, approval and knowing who is travelling while ensuring that people arc rotating fairly. This will help to improve the effectiveness of managing the Daily Subsistence Allowances expenditure
An analysis of the nexus between public debt and private investment: Evidence from Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2022) Ngwena, Ester Ndapandula N.
Public debt in Namibia has been rising over the years and the question is whether the persistently high debt level can negatively affect private gross fixed capital formation or not. Applying the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) model for cointegration on data for the period 2010Q1 to 2019Q4, this study empirically examined the nexus between public debt and private gross fixed capital formation in Namibia. The ARDL test results revealed the existence of a long-run relationship between the variables. Domestic debt and interest rate were found to have a statistically significant negative effect on private gross fixed capital formation in the long-run. These findings are consistent with the Classical and Neoclassical Views, which state that domestic debt crowds-out private investment. Moreover, the Granger Causality test was employed as a confirmatory test to determine the direction of causality between public debt and private gross fixed capital formation. The Granger Causality test results show the presence of no causality between public debt and private investment in Namibia. A bi-directional relationship was, however, found to exist between interest rate and private gross fixed capital formation. Moreover, a statistically significant bi-directional causal relation was also discovered between gross domestic product and gross fixed capital formation. Policy implications from these findings are that proper debt management to support private gross fixed capital formation in Namibia is fundamental. Furthermore, the newly established revenue agency could create new avenues to raise funds to widen the revenue base. Finally, the government could moderately increase external borrowing, albeit with caution, as external debt can be susceptible to external shocks, which affect debt service cost
An assessment of in-service training of middle level employee's effectiveness in Manica in the Erongo region
(University of Namibia, 2017) Bundje, Lucia Ndemuningashi; Mugano, G.
This study sought to assess the effectiveness of in-service training of middle level employee effectiveness in MANICA in the Erongo Region. The study was guided by four main objectives: (I) to assessing the level of performance of employee after having successfully completed in-service training programmes at their workplace; (2) to investigate if the lack of training opportunities can caused a decline in employee performance; (3) to establish information systems that can promote in-service training programmes for all employees; and lastly, (4) provide underpinning knowledge and expertise in relation to MANICA 's in-service training programmes. Concurrently, the study followed a qualitative approach and primary data was collected from the middle level employees at MANICA , using a self-administered questionnaire. Collected data was analysed and interpreted using the inductive and deductive method approach, presenting data in graphs, charts and tabular format where necessary. The findings reveal that in-service training is indeed efficiently administered and contributes a significant role in the success of the organisation. The researcher study concludes that in-service training programmes have a positive impact towards employee performance and that organisations should consider making it part of their learning culture, ensuring that all training programmes are well customised to meet all employee training needs
An assessment of the factors influencing airport security at Namibian airports: A case study of Hosea Kutako International Airport, 2018-2023
(University of Namibia, 2024) Shekupe, Angula Fillipus
Airports are regarded as unique entities that have insightful economic, social, and environmental effects on a local, regional, and even international level. Therefore, because of its crucial impact, the subject of airport security has taken the centre of discussions of numerous studies. A Security audit conducted in Namibia by the International Civil Aviation Organisation in 2018 revealed that some aspects of airport security at Namibian airports needed improvements. The audit suggested that Namibia needed to improve in various security aspects such as, the screening of passengers, screening of baggage and cargo, certifying of screeners, and employing of internal quality control measures to ensure quality assurance. Against this background, the purpose of this study was to examine the key factors that influence the effective and efficient execution of airport security at Hosea Kutako International Airport. The main security factors that were assessed are Human Resources, Regulations and Supervision, Machinery and Equipment, and Stakeholders. This was done by analysing opinions of airport security practitioners including managers on the security factors by using the Analytical Hierarchy Process method. A questionnaire was used to obtain data from selected respondents. The study population comprised of aviation security practitioners at Hosea Kutako International Airport from the Namibia Airports Company, Namibian Police, and the contracted security service provider the Namibia Protection Services. The study employed a case study design, and the collected data were analysed using Microsoft Excel software and interpretations were made from the results of analysis. The findings of the study show that the main factor of Human Resource is rated the most important factor, followed by the Machinery and Equipment, Regulations and Supervision, and Stakeholders respectively. Other sub factors and criteria were used in determining the level of importance of the main factors of airport security. The study formulated a model of airport security systems which, in conjunction with the decision model can assist in addressing operational and administrative security challenges. This model can be used by airports authorities to effectively deploy its limited resources by directing it to the security factors that are considered of great importance than other factors in enhancing airport security system. Furthermore, it may also be used to address the gap that may exist within the airport security systems. The study concluded that human resource is one of the important factors in airport security and therefore, to enhance efficiency and effectiveness of airport security it is recommended that qualified and well-trained personnel be employed
An evaluation of service quality and challenges faced by the Namibia Students Financial Assistance Fund
(University of Namibia, 2020) Elago, Petrus Uugwanga Tulinane; Saruchera, Fanny
Service quality is the ability of the organization to meet or exceed customer expectations. The late payment of loans to the Higher Tertiary Institutions (HTI's) in Namibia has been a major concern to both students and parents for the past years. HTI's put students in jeopardy when they are not allowed to write their examinations or receive their examination results due to unpaid tuition fees. It is on this basis that the researcher intended to evaluate the quality of service being offered by NSF AF from the viewpoint of students and from NSF AF' s point of view as an institution. The objectives of the study were: to evaluate the customer perceptions of service quality at NSF AF; to determine if customers were satisfied with NSF AF service; to establish the service delivery challenges faced by NSF AF and to identify possible strategies to improve service efficiency at NSF AF. A mixed methodology of qualitative and quantitative was used in order to gain an understanding of underlying perceptions and opinions for staff members and beneficiaries. This study was a combination of descriptive research and exploratory research. A case study research design was adopted and primary data was collected using researcher administered questionnaires from 127 students and 89 NSF AF staff members who were randomly sampled. The study made use of both descriptive and inferential statistics in drawing conclusions from the results. The study found that there was a significant difference between the customers' perception of service quality at NSF AF and service offered by NSFAF. In addition, the study concluded that the majority of students were not satisfied with the service delivered by NSF AF. The study further revealed that internal business processes, IT systems, recovery, policies and procedures were the main internal challenges the fund was faced with. Furthermore, the study revealed that NSF AF had the necessary resources to deliver effective and timely service to customers. The study further concluded that government directives and the economic downturn were the main external challenges that NSF AF was faced with. The study recommends that NSF AF acquires proper IT systems, to train its staff members on customer care and service, disburse student funds timely, improve communication and hire more employees in order to improve and enhance service delivery
An evaluation of the effectiveness and efficiency of internal financial controls in State Owned Enterprises in Namibia: A case study of the Namibia Development Corporation head office projects (Kavango Cattle Ranch and Naute) and regional offices
(University of Namibia, 2018) Ashipembe, Petrus Nuukushu; Matipira Lovemore
The thrust of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of internal financial controls in state owned enterprises in Namibia and this was done within the context of the Namibia Development Corporation. The investigation was done to examine the relationship that exists between internal financial control and financial accountability, and misappropriation of public funds. The investigation was prompted by the increase in public sector scandals and misappropriation of public funds in Namibia. The study employed a single case study research strategy to answer the research problem and the study used only senior executives, employees in the audit department, accounting and administration that were drawn from the organisation's head office in Windhoek, projects offices in Kavango cattle ranch and Naute as well as its regional offices countrywide. The participants were randomly selected. The questionnaire was used as the main research instrument of data collection and the Statistical Package for Social Sciences was employed for analysis. The study results showed that there is a significant positive relationship between financial accountability and fraud detection. According to the results of this study, there is a significant positive relationship between internal financial control and fraud detection, prevention of errors as well as financial accountability on the part of the NDC as an organisation that is owned by the state. Therefore, it was concluded that, state owned enterprises with effective internal financial controls can realise better financial accountability to their stakeholders. It was also established from the study that there was a significant positive relationship between internal financial control and protection of the interests of both the organisation and the employees. Thus, an improvement in internal financial control helps state owned organisations to improve service delivery and avoid a lot of misappropriation of funds. In relation to employees, it reduces the degree to which they may be accused of irregularities. The researcher recommends that state owned enterprises should continue to establish and strengthen their internal financial control systems in a bid to enhance financial accountability. This can be achieved through the implementation of policies, recruitment of competent employees and ensuring there are monitoring and evaluation systems in place
An evaluation of the social and economic impact of Non-Governmental 0rganisations in Namibia: A case study of Katutura youth enterprise centre and women’s action for development
(University of Namibia, 2024) Shililifa, Wycliff; Riruako, Hoze
Since gaining her independence, Namibia has witnessed steady growth in economic performance, expansion of industries and impressive expansion of social services. However, there remain wide disparities between income and wealth leading to extensive hunger and poverty. There has been an explosion of NGO activities aimed at alleviating poverty and reducing the gap between the poor and the rich, more importantly, shifting from welfare to sustainable skills development-oriented programmes directed at marginalised communities. Despite these developments, very little is known about the overall impact of NGO activities and very few details of specific project interventions are accessible in the public domain. This study is a meta critical evaluation of the socio-economic impact of the Katutura Youth Enterprise Centre (KAYEC) and Women Action for Development (WAD) training programmes on targeted youth in Namibia. This research unfolded within the context of the realisation that NGOs play a significant role in enhancing development among the youth in Namibia. A mixed methodological approach consisting of questionnaires, interviews and document analysis was employed to determine the effects of KAYEC and WAD training programmes on beneficiaries’ socio-economic development. The intellectual premise of this research was buttressed by viewpoints solicited from a sample of 100 students, comprising 25 participants from each of the four regions selected for this study. Structured questionnaires were administered with the selected participants, based on course, gender and age. Interviews were used to understand the impact of the training programmes as well as the challenges faced by beneficiaries of the KAYEC and WAD training programmes. The research employed descriptive and regression analysis to analyse the data. The results of the study established that KAYEC and WAD vocational and skills training programmes in bricklaying and plastering, ICT, office administration, needlework and tailoring contributed significantly to the socio-economic development of the beneficiaries. Moreover, the study reveals there is a significant improvement in financial status and improved access to social amenities (public buildings and other ii infrastructural facilities which are shared and become convergence spots for the local communities) as a result of the beneficiaries’ gainful employment after completing the training programmes. However, the results show a moderate impact on mechanic and horticultural skills
An investigation into the challenges faced by small and medium enterprises in utilising e-commerce in Windhoek, Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2021) Ashipala, Amenenge Ndeyapo; Muranda, Zororo
The E-commerce industry in Namibia is currently significantly underutilised by the SME sector. It is well established in research undertaken in other economies globally that improved utilisation of e-commerce by SMEs uplifts their perfonnance. This study aims to investigate the challenges faced by small and medium enterprises in utilising e-commerce. The study uses a case study approach with the City of Windhoek as the case. Methodologically the study used a qualitative research method. This study focussed on investigating the extent to which e-commerce is utilised by SMEs incubated by the City of Windhoek as well as their perceived challenges and benefits. The study interviewed eighteen (18) SME owners incubated at the City of Windhoek Bokamoso Incubation centre. Respondents were purposively selected and asked to respond to a set of semi-structured questions. Data collected in the study was analysed using thematic analysis, and the themes that emerged from their responses were discussed and supported with literature. The results suggest that these SMEs are aware of e commerce, and some are already utilising it. Those utilising e-commerce do so because of benefits like international trade, reduced costs, and the opportunity for a high customer base. On the action drivers, SMEs believe that they are driven to adopt e-commerce because of the demand from the market. In addition, they are driven by external parties such as the Ministry of Trade and Industry to use e-commerce. The challenges identified by the SMEs are organisational, financial, technical as well as legal and regulatory. Even though the SME owners understand e-commerce benefits, they are hindered from adopting e-commerce by lack of funds to purchase secured online systems that are not prone to fraud and the regulator's framework surrounding e-commerce in Namibia does not support various online payment methods. The study recommends a drive to implement e-commerce as part of the long-tenn business strategy. Regulatory institutions should also work on providing awareness and ease the regulatory framework surrounding e-payment and the attendant security measures. At policy level, the study recommends financial inclusivity through the number of on-line payment systems that are accessible to SMEs
An investigation into the effects of reward practices on job satisfaction and employee performance in Namibia Post Office
(University of Namibia, 2021) Damases, Faith Vivian Fritzlyn; Acha-Anyi, Paul Nkemngu
The study investigates the effects of reward practices on job satisfaction and employee performance in the Namibia Post Office (NamPost). More specifically, the study aims to determine whether employees are motivated and satisfied with current reward practices. The company has failed to keep up with new Namibia Post Office (NamPost)s and the company also has a high labour turnover. Emphasis is put on reward systems and types of rewards, Maslow's (Hierarchy of needs), Herzberg's Two Factor Theory, Vroom's Expectancy theory, Equity Theory, the Goal Setting Theory and Effort Reward Imbalance. This study was quantitative in nature with the descriptive research design. Disproportionate stratified sampling was used to draw a sample of 80 respondents for the study in categories of clerical, Supervisory and Specialist. The quantitative research falls short of explanations or expressions of respondents and therefore might fail to be conclusive as it might lack certain information. Sampling method may lead to selection of employees that might fail to understand the concept as it requires some appreciation of the concept to answer accordingly. A self-developed questionnaire with structured questions was administered to respondents The study used SPSS as the analysis software and the descriptive statistics and Pearson's cmTelation analysis, Chi-square goodness of fit tests and ANOVA were used to analyze the data and test the relationship between the variables. The findings indicated that reward system contributes to job satisfaction and employee performance. The study urges the organization to improve on the reward system in order to improve on its employee job satisfaction and performance
An investigation of the relationship between tax revenues and economic growth: The case of Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2024) Kumonika, Lukas
This study empirically investigated the relationship between tax revenue and economic growth in Namibia using the annual data for 1981-2020. The time series on GDP, net tax, private consumption and gross capital formation were extracted from annual national accounts tables available on Namibia Statistics Agency’s web site. The ARDL bound test confirmed no cointegration between tax revenue and GDP growth hence, the short-run ARDL was employed. The results of the short-run ARDL revealed a positive and significant contemporaneous relationship between taxation and economic growth. It is therefore, inferred that Namibia conforms to the hypothesis that economic growth and tax revenue reinforce each other In the same vein economic growth is significantly and negatively affected by the some historical values (lags) of net tax.. Moreover, the Granger causality test divulged neither unidirectional nor bidirectional causal relationship between tax revenue and GDP growth. In the final analysis, it is recommended that tax policies should be concurrently implemented with accelerated supply side policies such as business financing, product cost subsidization, entrepreneurial skill acquisition, especially in growth-driving sectors and eventually broaden the tax base. In other words, the results of the study implies that growth policies should be supplemented by a strong tax system so as to optimize revenue collection. The consistence of the findings of this study with the optimal tax theory implies that excessive taxation can distort economic activity, therefore, slow down production
Analysing perceptions of employees on the implementation of the performance management system: A case study of the Directorate of Sport in the Ministry of Sport, Youth and National Service
(University of Namibia, 2018) Mbanga, Owen Kachana
In an effort to improve performance, the government of Namibia has identified Performance Management System (PMS) as a vehicle towards achieving national goals and objectives. However, the implementation of PMS seems to be ungainly, with not much to be shown. To this extent it is important to analyse the implementer’s perceptions (employees) on the implementation of the performance management system. Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyse employee’s perceptions regarding the implementation of the Performance Management System (PMS), and to establish whether the employees and managers understand the objectives of the PMS. It also seeks and recommends possible solutions to the managerial and employees in the Directorate of Sport. Mixed method research design, comprising of both qualitative and quantitative methods was used. Structured questionnaires that consisted of a Likert scale and open ended interviews were the most appropriate tools used to collect data in order to gain more understanding on the research participant’s perspective of PMS in terms of their perceptions and understanding. The population of the study was 95 employees and the sample size was 20 within the Directorate of Sport under the Ministry of Sport, Youth and National Service. It consisted of Directors, Deputy Directors, Chief Sport Officers, Senior Sport Officers and Sport Officers from the Directorate of Sport. Out of the stated sample size, only 19 respondents participated in this study. Sixteen (16) respondents were randomly selected, and 3 were purposively selected for interviews. The data collected from the questionnaires was analysed using tables, graphs, and charts. This data was also interpreted in summary form, while the data from the conducted interviews was transcribed. This study reveals that the employees perceive that PMS can improve performance in the Directorate of Sport, and they also show a good understanding of PMS objectives. However, they feel that the implementation of PMS in the Directorate of Sport has failed and is ineffective, because it is not adapted to the current available setting and environment of sport. Additionally, the lack of prioritisation of planned activities makes financial resources, and the application of PMS to the directorate of sport and its implementation difficult as it puts strain on the limited resources. This finding is reflected by the main challenges of the limited budget. This thesis recommends that a manager-employee relationship should be created to improve employee-manager relationship and communication on clear alignment of implementing the strategic plan, annual plan and performance agreements. This should be done in order to create and sustain a performance-orientated culture, which will enhance employees’ commitment and dedication towards the achievement of the Directorate of Sport objectives and goals as aligned to the National Development Plan five (NDP 5).
Analysing the effect of financial inclusion on income inequality in Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2024) Shimueoshili, Tsheya N.B.
While there is growing evidence on the effect of financial inclusion on household income and well-being, much is not known about the distributional effects across the different income quintiles. This study contributes to the literature by examining the effect of financial inclusion on household well-being and income inequality in Namibia, using the 2017 nationally representative household financial inclusion survey. Household per capita income and household asset index were created using the UNDP approach and considered as proxies for household income and well-being respectively. Financial inclusion is proxied by access and use of formal bank accounts, savings, and credit accounts. The study employed a two-stage least squares (2SLS) regression to estimate the effect of financial inclusion on household well-being and a quantile regression to investigate to estimate the effect of financial inclusion on income inequality. The study elicits some interesting results. First, the study finds that financial inclusion has a positive and significant effect on household income and well-being. Second, the magnitude of the effects was found to vary between rural and urban households with effects generally higher among urban than rural households. Third, financial inclusion was found to have a positive and significant effect across all quantiles of the income distribution, with greater effects in the higher quantiles when access to formal credit is considered and greater effects in the lower quintiles when access to formal banks and savings accounts is considered. Finally, the study finds that household socioeconomic characteristics such as education and gender of the household head, urban residence, and household size are important determinants of household income and well-being. The study recommends that national and international agencies continue improving access to formal financial services to narrow the gap between the wealthy and the poor, primarily in rural areas and low-income quintile households
Analysing the effects of interest rate and reserve requirement ratio on bank credit risk in Namibia
(University of Namibia, 2020) Andreas, Aili
The study assessed the effect of monetary policy instruments (interest rates and reserve requirements) on banking institutions risk, measured in terms of non-performing loans. The study used quarterly data from Bank of Namibia from 2001 Qi to 2017Q3. The study employed the Autoregressive Distributive Lag (ARDL) lag model to determine the effects. Since the reserve requirements is seldom used in Namibia and ever kept at one percent of the bank's total liabilities to the public, it was considered dormant. Therefore, shocking the reserves requirements up-or down-wards is not plausible in the Namibian economy. The variables considered are non-performing loans (NPL), as a dependent variable and interest rates (I), banks tier I capital (CA), banks ' total assets (TAJ, gross domestic product (GDP), and private credit extension (CR); as the explanatory variables. The results indicate that there is a short run negative effect between interest rates and bank risk, which implies that the low rate would increase the bank 's non-performing loans. The negative relationship indicates that low inflation or price stability does not guarantee financial stability in the economy. The Granger causality results indicate non-causality between interest rates and bank risk, but interest rates Granger cause economic growth and private sector credit that have a direct effect to bank risks.

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